The authors thank Thorsten Beck, Margherita Bottero, Giacomo Calzolari, Kim Fe Cramer, Thomas Crossley, Marco Di Maggio, Andreas Fuster, Alberto Manconi, David Martinez-Miera, Natalya Martynova, Rachel Nam, Ha Diep-Nguyen, Marco Pagano, Thomas G. Ruchti, Philipp Schnabl, Antoinette Schoar, Amit Seru, Elizaveta Sizova, Roberto Steri, Athena Tsouderou, Sergio Vicente, and Jinyuan Zhang, as well as participants at the University of British Columbia Winter Finance Conference, Financial Intermediation Research Society Conference, Barcelona Summer Forum, Swiss Winter Conference on Financial Intermediation, Financial Intermediation Network of European Studies (FINEST), Money and Finance Research Group Workshop on Banking, the Financial Management and Accounting Research Conference, HEC Paris conference on Banking in the Age of Challenges, Bristol Banking Workshop, Midwest Finance Association, Office of the Comptroller of the Currency Conference on The Implications of Financial Technology for Banking, Swiss Society for Financial Market Research Conference, International Banking, Economics and Finance Association Conference, Basel Committee on Banking Supervision Conference on Financial Regulation, Business Model Innovation and Resilience in an Evolving Macro-Economic Environment, the 2025 American Economic Association meetings, as well as at seminars at European University Institute, BI Norwegian Business School, International Monetary Fund, Universidad Carlos III de Madrid, CUNEF, Vienna University of Economics and Business, and the Bank for International Settlements for comments and suggestions. The authors also thank Nikita Divissenko and Maria Magierska. The views in this paper are those of the authors only and do not necessarily reflect those of the Bank for International Settlements nor the European Commission.