Is Fitness Technology-Facilitated Social Comparison the Thief of Well-Being? The Mediating Role of Social Comparison on the Relationships Between Passion and Performance Self-Esteem

References

• Adjerid I, Loewenstein G, Purta R, Striegel A (2022) Gain-loss incentives and physical activity: The role of choice and wearable health tools. Management Sci. 68(4):2642–2667.Link, Google Scholar
• Alfasi Y (2019) The grass is always greener on my Friends’ profiles: The effect of Facebook social comparison on state self-esteem and depression. Personality Individual Differences 147(9):111–117.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Aspinwall LG, Taylor SE (1993) Effects of social comparison direction, threat, and self-esteem on affect, self-evaluation, and expected success. J. Personality Soc. Psych. 64(5):708–722.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Babar Y, Chan J, Choi B (2024) “Run Forrest Run!”: Measuring the impact of app-enabled performance and social feedback on athletic and usage outcomes. Production Oper. Management 33(7):1612–1631.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Batenburg A, Das E (2015) Virtual support communities and psychological well-being: The role of optimistic and pessimistic social comparison strategies. J. Comput-Mediat. Comm. 20(6):585–600.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Bélanger JJ, Lafreniere M-AK, Vallerand RJ, Kruglanski AW (2013) Driven by fear: The effect of success and failure information on passionate individuals’ performance. J. Personality Soc. Psych. 104(1):180–195.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Bianchi C, Tuzovic S, Kuppelwieser VG (2023) Investigating the drivers of wearable technology adoption for healthcare in South America. ITP 36(2):916–939.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Blair SN, Kohl HW, Gordon NF, Paffenbarger RS Jr (1992) How much physical activity is good for health? Annual Rev. Public Health 13(1):99–126.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Blunch NJ (2008) Introduction to Structural Equation Modeling Using SPSS and AMOS (Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA).Crossref, Google Scholar
• Bonneville-Roussy A, Lavigne GL, Vallerand RJ (2011) When passion leads to excellence: The case of musicians. Psych. Music 39(1):123–138.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Bostic TJ, Rubio DM, Hood M (2000) A validation of the subjective vitality scale using structural equation modeling. Soc. Indicators Res. 52(3):313–324. Crossref, Google Scholar
• Bravata DM, Smith-Spangler C, Sundaram V, Gienger AL, Lin N, Lewis R, Stave CD, Olkin I, Sirard JR (2007) Using pedometers to increase physical activity and improve health: A systematic review. JAMA 298(19):2296–2304.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Brickwood K-J, Watson G, O’Brien J, Williams AD (2019) Consumer-based wearable activity trackers increase physical activity participation: Systematic review and meta-analysis. JMIR mHealth Uhealth 7(4):e11819.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Briskman J (2025) 2025 State of Mobile: Health & Fitness Surges into the New Year. Sensor Tower. Accessed February 17, 2025, https://sensortower.com/blog/state-of-mobile-health-and-fitness-in-2025.Google Scholar
• Brito TRDS, Pereira CR, Santos FÁD, Nery NNDF (2023) Measuring the general and specific domains of self-esteem: The short-form of the state self-esteem scale. Psych. Rep. 126(6):3123–3149.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Buhrmester M, Kwang T, Gosling SD (2011) Amazon’s Mechanical Turk a new source of inexpensive, yet high-quality, data? Perspect. Psych. Sci. 6(1):3–5.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Burke TJ, Rains SA (2019) The paradoxical outcomes of observing others’ exercise behavior on social network sites: Friends’ exercise posts, exercise attitudes, and weight concern. Health Comm. 34(4):475–483.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Buunk BP, Ybema JF (1997) Social comparisons and occupational stress: The identification-contrast model. Buunk BP, Gibbons FX, eds. Health, Coping, and Well-Being: Perspectives from Social Comparison Theory (Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, NJ), 359–388.Google Scholar
• Buunk BP, Collins RL, Taylor SE, VanYperen NW, Dakof GA (1990) The affective consequences of social comparison: Either direction has its ups and downs. J. Personality Soc. Psych. 59(6):1238–1249.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Carmona C, Buunk AP, Dijkstra A, Peiró JM (2008) The relationship between goal orientation, social comparison responses, self-efficacy, and performance. Eur. Psychologist 13(3):188–196.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Ceci L (2024) Leading fitness and sport apps worldwide in January 2024, by revenue. Statista. Accessed July 10, 2024, https://www.statista.com/statistics/1239716/top-fitness-and-sport-apps-by-revenue/.Google Scholar
• Chen Y, Pu P (2014) HealthyTogether: Exploring social incentives for mobile fitness applications. Proc. Second Internat. Symposium Chinese CHI (Toronto, Canada), 25–34.Google Scholar
• Chen Y, Zhang J, Pu P (2014) Exploring social accountability for pervasive fitness apps. Eighth Internat. Conf. Mobile Ubiquitous Computing, Systems, Services Technol. (Rome, Italy), 221–226.Google Scholar
• Chen XS, Changolkar S, Navathe AS, Linn KA, Reh G, Szwartz G, Steier D, Godby S, Balachandran M, Harrison JD (2020) Association between behavioral phenotypes and response to a physical activity intervention using gamification and social incentives: Secondary analysis of the STEP UP randomized clinical trial. PloS One 15(10):e0239288.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Churchill GA (1979) A paradigm for developing better measures of marketing constructs. J. Marketing Res. 16(1):64–73.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Curry D (2024) Fitness app revenue and usage statistics (2024). Business of Apps. Accessed October 15, 2024, https://www.businessofapps.com/data/fitness-app-market/.Google Scholar
• Deci EL, Ryan RM (1985) The general causality orientations scale: Self-determination in personality. J. Res. Personality 19(2):109–134.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Deci EL, Ryan RM (2000) The “what” and “why” of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. Psych. Inquiry 11(4):227–268.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Deci EL, Betley G, Kahle J, Abrams L, Porac J (1981) When trying to win: Competition and intrinsic motivation. Personality Soc. Psych. Bull. 7(1):79–83.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Diener E, Emmons RA, Larsen RJ, Griffin S (1985) The satisfaction with life scale. J. Personality Assess. 49(1):71–75.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Esteves J, Valogianni K, Greenhill A (2021) Online social games: The effect of social comparison elements on continuance behaviour. Inform. Management 58(4):103452.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Etkin J (2016) The hidden cost of personal quantification. J. Consumer Res. 42(6):967–984.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Fairlamb S (2022) We need to talk about self-esteem: The effect of contingent self-worth on student achievement and well-being. Scholarship Teaching Learn. Psych. 8(1):45–57.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Festinger L (1954) A theory of social comparison processes. Human Relations 7(2):117–140.Crossref, Google Scholar
• George R (2020) Kudos, leaderboards, and QOMs: How fitness app Strava became a religion. The Guardian. Accessed July 11, 2024, https://www.theguardian.com/news/2020/jan/14/kudos-leaderboards-qoms-how-fitness-app-strava-became-a-religion.Google Scholar
• Global Industry Analysts (2025) Fitness apps - Global strategic business report. Research and Markets. Accessed February 18, 2025, https://www.researchandmarkets.com/reports/5985411/fitness-apps-global-strategic-business-report?.Google Scholar
• Gupta A, Dhiman N, Yousaf A, Arora N (2021) Social comparison and continuance intention of smart fitness wearables: An extended expectation confirmation theory perspective. Behav. Inform. Tech. 40(13):1341–1354.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Hauke N, Abele AE (2020) Communion and self-esteem: No relationship? A closer look at the association of agency and communion with different components of self-esteem. Personality Individual Differences 160(7):109957.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Heatherton TF, Polivy J (1991) Development and validation of a scale for measuring state self-esteem. J. Personality Soc. Psych. 60(6):895–910.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Helgeson VS, Mickelson KD (1995) Motives for social comparison. Personality Soc. Psych. Bull. 21(11):1200–1209.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Hu J, He W, Zhang JJ, Song J (2023) Examining the impacts of fitness app features on user well-being. Inform. Management 60(5):103796.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Hydari M, Adjerid I, Striegel AD (2023) Health wearables, gamification, and healthful activity. Management Sci. 69(7):3759–4361.Google Scholar
• James T, Bélanger F, Lowry PB (2021) The mediating role of fitness technology enablement of psychological need satisfaction and frustration on the relationship between goals for fitness technology use and use outcomes. J Assoc. Inform. Systems 23(4):913–965.Google Scholar
• James TL, Deane J, Wallace L (2019a) An application of goal content theory to examine how desired exercise outcomes impact fitness technology feature set selection. Inform. Systems J. 29(5):1010–1039.Crossref, Google Scholar
• James TL, Wallace L, Deane J (2019b) Using organismic integration theory to explore the associations between users’ exercise motivations and fitness technology feature set use. MIS Quart. 43(1):287–312.Crossref, Google Scholar
• James T, Lowry PB, Wallace LG, Warkentin M (2017) The effect of belongingness on obsessive-compulsive disorder in the use of online social networks. J. Management Inform. Systems 34(2):669–682.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Jin D, Halvari H, Maehle N, Olafsen AH (2022) Self-tracking behaviour in physical activity: A systematic review of drivers and outcomes of fitness tracking. Behav. Inform. Tech. 41(2):242–261.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Kim H-M (2022) Social comparison of fitness social media postings by fitness app users. Comput. Human Behav. 131(June):107204.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Krasnova H, Widjaja T, Buxmann P, Wenninger H, Benbasat I (2015) Why following friends can hurt you: An exploratory investigation of the effects of envy on social networking sites among college-age users. Inform. Systems Res. 26(3):585–605.Link, Google Scholar
• Kuykendall L, Craig L, Tay L (2020) Work‐contingent self‐esteem: A boon or bane for worker well‐being? J. Organ. Behav. 41(1):1–16.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Lafrenière M-AK, St-Louis AC, Vallerand RJ, Donahue EG (2012) On the relation between performance and life satisfaction: The moderating role of passion. Self Identity 11(4):516–530.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Laricchia F (2024) Share of Americans owning a wearable device as of June 2024, by type of ownership and age. Statista (December 3), https://www.statista.com/statistics/1425005/wearable-ownership-by-type-and-age-us/.Google Scholar
• Lavoie C-E, Vallerand RJ, Verner-Filion J (2021) Passion and emotions: The mediating role of cognitive appraisals. Psych. Sport Exercise 54(5):101907.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Li C, Chen X, Bi X (2021) Wearable activity trackers for promoting physical activity: A systematic meta-analytic review. Internat. J. Med. Inform. 152(August):104487.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Li J, Liu X, Ma L, Zhang W (2018) Users’ intention to continue using social fitness-tracking apps: Expectation confirmation theory and social comparison theory perspective. Inform. Health Soc. Care. 44(3):298–312.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Liu Q-Q, Zhou Z-K, Yang X-J, Niu G-F, Tian Y, Fan C-Y (2017) Upward social comparison on social network sites and depressive symptoms: A moderated mediation model of self-esteem and optimism. Personality Individual Differences 113(1):223–228.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Lowry PB, D’Arcy J, Hammer B, Moody GD (2016) Cargo Cult science in traditional organization and information systems survey research: A case for using nontraditional methods of data collection, including Mechanical Turk and online panels. J. Strategic Inform. Systems 25(3):232–240.Crossref, Google Scholar
• MacKenzie SB, Podsakoff PM, Podsakoff NP (2011) Construct measurement and validation procedures in MIS and behavioral research: Integrating new and existing techniques. MIS Quart. 35(2):293–334.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Mageau GA, Carpentier J, Vallerand RJ (2011) The role of self‐esteem contingencies in the distinction between obsessive and harmonious passion. Eur. J. Soc. Psych. 41(6):720–729.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Mason W, Suri S (2012) Conducting behavioral research on Amazon’s Mechanical Turk. Behav. Res. Methods 44(1):1–23.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Morse S, Gergen KJ (1970) Social comparison, self-consistency, and the concept of self. J. Personality Soc. Psych. 16(1):148–156.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Neff KD (2011) Self-compassion, self-esteem, and well-being. Soc. Personality Psych. 5(1):1–12.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Neighbors C, Knee CR (2003) Self-determination and the consequences of social comparison. J. Res. Personality 37(6):529–546.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Oppenheimer DM, Meyvis T, Davidenko N (2009) Instructional manipulation checks: Detecting satisficing to increase statistical power. J. Experiment. Soc. Psych. 45(4):867–872.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Parastatidou IS, Doganis G, Theodorakis Y, Vlachopoulos SP (2012) Exercising with passion: Initial validation of the Passion Scale in exercise. Measurement Phys. Ed. Exercise Sci. 16(2):119–134.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Podsakoff PM, MacKenzie SB, Lee J-Y, Podsakoff NP (2003) Common method biases in behavioral research: A critical review of the literature and recommended remedies. J. Appl. Psych. 88(5):879–903.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Raes F, Pommier E, Neff KD, Van Gucht D (2011) Construction and factorial validation of a short form of the self‐compassion scale. Clin. Psych. Psychother. 18(3):250–255.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Rawsthorne LJ, Elliot AJ (1999) Achievement goals and intrinsic motivation: A meta-analytic review. Personality Soc. Psych. Rev. 3(4):326–344.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Ringeval M, Wagner G, Denford J, Paré G, Kitsiou S (2020) Fitbit-based interventions for healthy lifestyle outcomes: Systematic review and meta-analysis. J. Med. Internet Res. 22(10):e23954.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Rockmann R (2019) Don’t hurt me… no more? An empirical study on the positive and adverse motivational effects in fitness apps. 27th Eur. Conf. Inform. Systems (Stockholm-Uppsala, Sweden), 1–17.Google Scholar
• Rockmann R, Gewald H (2018) Activity tracking affordances: Identification and instrument development. Pacific Asia Conf. Inform. Systems (Japan), 232.Google Scholar
• Rockmann R, Gewald H (2019) Individual fitness app use: The role of goal orientations and motivational affordances. 25th Americas Conf. Inform. Systems (Cancun, Mexico), 1–10.Google Scholar
• Rockmann R, Maier C (2019) On the fit in fitness apps: Studying the interaction of motivational affordances and users’ goal orientations in affecting the benefits gained. Internat. Conf. Wirtschafsinformatik (Siegen, Germany), 1017–1031.Google Scholar
• Rousseau FL, Vallerand RJ (2008) An examination of the relationship between passion and subjective well-being in older adults. Internat. J. Aging Human Dev. 66(3):195–211.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Ryan RM, Deci EL (2000) Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. Amer. Psych. 55(1):68–78.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Ryan RM, Frederick C (1997) On energy, personality, and health: Subjective vitality as a dynamic reflection of well‐being. J. Personality 65(3):529–565.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Ryan RM, Huta V, Deci EL (2013) Living well: A self-determination theory of eudaimonia. Delle Fave A., ed. The Exploration of Happiness (Springer, Dordrecht), 117–140.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Ryff CD (1989) Happiness is everything, or is it? Explorations on the meaning of psychological well-being. J. Personality Soc. Psych. 57(6):1069–1081.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Schellenberg BJ, Bailis DS, Mosewich AD (2016) You have passion, but do you have self-compassion? Harmonious passion, obsessive passion, and responses to passion-related failure. Personality Individual Differences 99(1):278–285.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Schmuck D, Karsay K, Matthes J, Stevic A (2019) “Looking Up and Feeling Down”. The influence of mobile social networking site use on upward social comparison, self-esteem, and well-being of adult smartphone users. Telematics Informatics 42:101240.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Shandhi MMH, Singh K, Janson N, Ashar P, Singh G, Lu B, Hillygus DS, Maddocks JM, Dunn JP (2024) Assessment of ownership of smart devices and the acceptability of digital health data sharing. Npj Digit. Med. 7(1):44.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Steelman ZR, Hammer BI, Limayem M (2014) Data collection in the digital age: Innovative alternatives to student samples. MIS Quart. 38(2):355–378.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Stenseng F, Dalskau LH (2010) Passion, self-esteem, and the role of comparative performance evaluation. J. Sport Exerc. Psych. 32(6):881–894.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Stiglbauer B, Weber S, Batinic B (2019) Does your health really benefit from using a self-tracking device? Evidence from a longitudinal randomized control trial. Comput. Human Behav. 94(5):131–139.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Suh A, Li M (2022) How the use of mobile fitness technology influences older adults’ physical and psychological well-being. Comput. Human Behav. 131(6):107205.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Suls J, Wheeler L (2012) Social comparison theory. Van Lange PAM, Kruglanski AW, Higgins ET, eds. Handbook of Theories of Social Psychology (Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA), 460–482.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Suls J, Martin R, Wheeler L (2002) Social comparison: Why, with whom, and with what effect? Curr. Dir. Psych. Sci. 11(5):159–163.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Summerville A (2019) Is comparison really the thief of joy? Psychology Today (March 21), https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/multiple-choice/201903/is-comparison-really-the-thief-joy.Google Scholar
• Sun M, Jiang LC (2022) Linking social features of fitness apps with physical activity among Chinese users: Evidence from self-reported and self-tracked behavioral data. Inform. Processing Management 59(6):103096.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Sun M, Jiang LC, Huang G (2022) Improving body satisfaction through fitness app use: Explicating the role of social comparison, social network size, and gender. Health Comm. 38(10):2087–2098.Google Scholar
• Tarafdar M, Gupta A, Turel O (2013) The dark side of information technology use. Inform. Systems J. 23(3):269–275.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Teng X, Bao Z (2022) Factors affecting users’ stickiness of fitness apps: An empirical study based on the SOR perspective. Internat. J. Sports Marketing Sponsorship 23(4):823–840.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Vallerand RJ (2010) On passion for life activities: The dualistic model of passion. Zanna M, ed. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology (Academic Press, San Diego, CA), 97–193.Google Scholar
• Vallerand RJ (2012) From motivation to passion: In search of the motivational processes involved in a meaningful life. Canadian Psych. 53(1):42–52.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Vallerand RJ, Paquet Y, Philippe FL, Charest J (2010) On the role of passion for work in burnout: A process model. J. Personality 78(1):289–312.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Vallerand RJ, Mageau GA, Elliot AJ, Dumais A, Demers M-A, Rousseau F (2008) Passion and performance attainment in sport. Psych. Sport Exercise 9(3):373–392.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Vallerand RJ, Rousseau FL, Grouzet FM, Dumais A, Grenier S, Blanchard CM (2006) Passion in sport: A look at determinants and affective experiences. J. Sport Exercise Psych. 28(4):454–478.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Vallerand RJ, Salvy SJ, Mageau GA, Elliot AJ, Denis PL, Grouzet FM, Blanchard C (2007) On the role of passion in performance. J. Personality 75(3):505–534.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Vallerand RJ, Blanchard C, Mageau GA, Koestner R, Ratelle C, Léonard M, Gagné M, Marsolais J (2003) Les passions de l’ame: On obsessive and harmonious passion. J. Personality Soc. Psych. 85(4):756–767.Crossref, Google Scholar
• van der Weegen S, Verwey R, Spreeuwenberg M, Tange H, van der Weijden T, de Witte L (2015) It’s LiFe! Mobile and web-based monitoring and feedback tool embedded in primary care increases physical activity: A cluster randomized controlled trial. J. Med. Internet Res. 17(7):e4579.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Van der Zee K, Buunk B, Sanderman R, Botke G, Van den Bergh F (2000) Social comparison and coping with cancer treatment. Personality Individual Differences 28(1):17–34.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Venkatesh V, Davis FD (2000) A theoretical extension of the technology acceptance model: Four longitudinal field studies. Management Sci. 46(2):186–204.Link, Google Scholar
• Venkatesh V, Thong JY, Chan FK, Hu PJH, Brown SA (2011) Extending the two‐stage information systems continuance model: Incorporating UTAUT predictors and the role of context. Inform. Systems J. 21(6):527–555.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Verner-Filion J, Vallerand RJ, Donahue EG, Moreau E, Martin A, Mageau GA, Martin A (2014) Passion, coping, and anxiety in sport: The interplay between key motivational and self-regulatory processes. Internat. J. Sport Psych. 45(6):516–537.Google Scholar
• Vlachopoulos SP (2012) The role of self-determination theory variables in predicting middle school students’ subjective vitality in physical education. Hellenic J. Psych. 9(2):179–204.Google Scholar
• Vogel EA, Rose JP, Roberts LR, Eckles K (2014) Social comparison, social media, and self-esteem. Psych. Popular Media Culture 3(4):206–222.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Wang J-L, Wang H-Z, Gaskin J, Hawk S (2017) The mediating roles of upward social comparison and self-esteem and the moderating role of social comparison orientation in the association between social networking site usage and subjective well-being. Front. Psych. 8:771.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Wei J, Vinnikova A, Lu L, Xu J (2021) Understanding and predicting the adoption of fitness mobile apps: Evidence from China. Health Comm. 36(8):950–961.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Wheeler L, Miyake K (1992) Social comparison in everyday life. J. Personality Soc. Psych. 62(5):760–773.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Wills TA (1981) Downward comparison principles in social psychology. Psych. Bull. 90(2):245–271.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Yang Y, Koenigstorfer J (2021) Determinants of fitness app usage and moderating impacts of education-, motivation-, and gamification-related app features on physical activity intentions: Cross-sectional survey study. J. Med. Internet Res. 23(7):e26063.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Yang Y, Goh KY, Teo HH, Tan SS (2023) Compete with me? The impact of online gamified competition on exercise behavior. J. Assoc. Inform. Systems 24(3):912–935.Google Scholar
• Yuan S, Ma W, Kanthawala S, Peng W (2015) Keep using my health apps: Discover users’ perception of health and fitness apps with the UTAUT2 model. Telemed. J. E Health 21(9):735–741.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Yue Z, Zhang R, Xiao J (2022) Passive social media use and psychological well-being during the COVID-19 pandemic: The role of social comparison and emotion regulation. Comput. Human Behav. 127(2):107050.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Zhang J, Jiang Q, Zhang W, Kang L, Lowry PB, Zhang X (2023) Explaining the outcomes of social gamification: A longitudinal field experiment. J. Management Inform. Systems 40(2):401–439.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Zhou Y, Kankanhalli A, Huang K-W (2016) Effects of fitness applications with SNS: How do they influence physical activity. 37th Internat. Conf. Inform. Systems (Dublin, Ireland), 1–11.Google Scholar