Bots with Feelings: Should AI Agents Express Positive Emotion in Customer Service?
References
- (2004) The effects of brand relationship norms on consumer attitudes and behavior. J. Consumer Res. 31(1):87–101.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2019) Guidelines for human-AI interaction. 2019 CHI Conf. Human Factors Comput. Systems (Association for Computing Machinery, New York), 1–13.Google Scholar
- (1993) The antecedents and consequences of customer satisfaction for firms. Marketing Sci. 12(2):125–143.Link, Google Scholar
- (2018) Living up to the chatbot hype: The influence of anthropomorphic design cues and communicative agency framing on conversational agent and company perceptions. Comput. Human Behav. 85:183–189.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2006) Service with a smile and encounter satisfaction: Emotional contagion and appraisal mechanisms. Acad. Management J. 49(6):1229–1238.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2001) Understanding information systems continuance: An expectation-confirmation model. Management Inform. Systems Quart. 25(3):351–370.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2001) Some new thoughts on conceptualizing perceived service quality: A hierarchical approach. J. Marketing 65(3):34–49.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2008) Gender and emotion in context. Handbook of Emotions (The Guilford Press, New York), 395–408.Google Scholar
- (1993) Interpersonal expectations, expectancy violations, and emotional communication. J. Language Soc. Psych. 12(1–2):30–48.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2018) The interpersonal effects of emotion intensity in customer service: Perceived appropriateness and authenticity of attendants’ emotional displays shape customer trust and satisfaction. Organ. Behav. Human Decision Processes 144:97–111.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2011) Anger and happiness in virtual teams: Emotional influences of text and behavior on others’ affect in the absence of non-verbal cues. Organ. Behav. Human Decision Processes 116(1):2–16.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (1993) The difference between communal and exchange relationships: What it is and is not. Personality Soc. Psych. Bull. 19(6):684–691.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (1991) Reactions to and willingness to express emotion in communal and exchange relationships. J. Experiment. Soc. Psych. 27(4):324–336.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2001) Affect as information. Handbook of Affect and Social Cognition, 121–144.Google Scholar
- (2014) The impact of an embodied agent’s emotional expressions over multiple interactions. Interacting Comput. 27(2):172–188.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2000) Assessing the effects of quality, value, and customer satisfaction on consumer behavioral intentions in service environments. J. Retailing 76(2):193–218.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2013) The effect of agency on the impact of emotion expressions on people’s decision making. 2013 Humaine Assoc. Conf. Affective Comput. Intelligent Interaction (IEEE, Piscataway, NJ), 546–551.Google Scholar
- (1997) The emotional contagion scale: A measure of individual differences. J. Nonverbal Behav. 21(2):131–154.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (1969) Pan-cultural elements in facial displays of emotion. Sci. 164(3875):86–88.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2003) In two minds: Dual-process accounts of reasoning. Trends Cognitive Sci. 7(10):454–459.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2015) Measuring emotional contagion in social media. PLoS One 10(11):e0142390.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (1957) A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance (Stanford University Press, Redwood City, CA).Crossref, Google Scholar
- Financial Digest (2017) AI will power 95% of customer interactions by 2025. Accessed June 20, 2020, https://www.financedigest.com/ai-will-power-95-of-customer-interactions-by-2025.html.Google Scholar
- (2018) Gender differences in emotion perception and self-reported emotional intelligence: A test of the emotion sensitivity hypothesis. PLoS One 13(1):e0190712.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2020) Human trust in artificial intelligence: Review of empirical research. Acad. Management Ann. 14(2):627–660.Crossref, Google Scholar
- Global Industry Analysts (2021) Affective computing: Global market trajectory & analytics. Report. Accessed June 23, 2021, https://www.researchandmarkets.com/reports/4804491/affective-computing-global-market-trajectory.Google Scholar
- (2020) Digital emotion contagion. Trends Cognitive Sci. 24(4):316–328.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (1994) Consumer satisfaction and perceived quality: Complementary or divergent constructs? J. Appl. Psych. 79(6):875–885.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2012) Feeling robots and human zombies: Mind perception and the uncanny valley. Cognition 125(1):125–130.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2007) Dimensions of mind perception. Sci. 315(5812):619.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2021) Mental models and expectation violations in conversational AI interactions. Decision Support Systems 144:113515.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2008) I’m sad you’re sad: Emotional contagion in CMC. Proc. 2008 ACM Conf. Comput. Supported Cooperative Work (Association for Computing Machinery, New York).Google Scholar
- (2015) More than a feeling: Emotional contagion effects in persuasive communication. J. Marketing Res. 52(6):836–847.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2006) Dehumanization: An integrative review. Personality Soc. Psych. Rev. 10(3):252–264.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (1993) Emotional contagion. Current Directions Psych. Sci. 2(3):96–100.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2013) Introduction to Mediation, Moderation, and Conditional Process Analysis: A Regression-Based Approach (Guilford Press, New York).Google Scholar
- (1995) Emotion norms in interpersonal events. Soc. Psych. Quart. 58(4):223–240.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2018) Artificial intelligence in service. J. Service Res. 21(2):155–172.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2021) Engaged to a robot? The role of AI in service. J. Service Res. 24(1):30–41.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2011) Forms and functions of emotions: Matters of emotion–cognition interactions. Emotion Rev. 3(4):371–378.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2013) Credibility of anonymous online product reviews: A language expectancy perspective. J. Management Inform. Systems 30(1):293–324.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2012) The virtual malleable self and the virtual identity discrepancy model: Investigative frameworks for virtual possible selves and others in avatar-based identity construction and social interaction. Comput. Human Behav. 28(6):2160–2168.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2011) Online pauses and silence: Chronemic expectancy violations in written computer-mediated communication. Comm. Res. 38(1):54–69.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2019) Eliza in the uncanny valley: Anthropomorphizing consumer robots increases their perceived warmth but decreases liking. Marketing Lett. 30(1):1–12.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2014) Experimental evidence of massive-scale emotional contagion through social networks. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 111(24):8788–8790.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2020) Beyond valence: A meta-analysis of discrete emotions in firm-customer encounters. J. Acad. Marketing Sci. 48(3):478–498.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2015) Technology, humanness, and trust: Rethinking trust in technology. J. Assoc. Inform. Systems 16(10):880–918.Google Scholar
- (2017) “Service encounter 2.0”: An investigation into the roles of technology, employees and customers. J. Bus. Res. 79:238–246.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2006) Emotions and interpersonal relationships: Toward a person-centered conceptualization of emotions and coping. J. Personality 74(1):9–46.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2018) Service with emoticons: How customers interpret employee use of emoticons in online service encounters. J. Consumer Res. 45(5):973–987.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2011) Bringing us together or driving us apart: The effect of soliciting consumer input on consumers’ propensity to transact with an organization. J. Consumer Res. 38(2):242–259.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2014) It’s only a computer: Virtual humans increase willingness to disclose. Comput. Human Behav. 37:94–100.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2019) Frontiers: Machines vs. humans: The impact of artificial intelligence chatbot disclosure on customer purchases. Marketing Sci. 38(6):937–947.Abstract, Google Scholar
- (2006) Subjective ratings of robot video clips for human likeness, familiarity, and eeriness: An exploration of the uncanny valley. ICCS/CogSci-2006 Long Sympos. Toward Soc. Mechanisms Android Sci., 26–29.Google Scholar
- McKinsey (2021) The state of AI in 2021. Accessed January 23, 2022, https://www.mckinsey.com/business-functions/mckinsey-analytics/our-insights/global-survey-the-state-of-ai-in-2021.Google Scholar
- (1993) Toward the simulation of emotion in synthetic speech: A review of the literature on human vocal emotion. J. Acoustical Soc. Amer. 93(2):1097–1108.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2000) “Mood contagion”: The automatic transfer of mood between persons. J. Personality Soc. Psych. 79(2):211–223.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (1992) A catastrophe model for developing service satisfaction strategies. J. Marketing 56(3):83–95.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (1977) Effect of expectation and disconfirmation on postexposure product evaluations: An alternative interpretation. J. Appl. Psych. 62(4):480–486.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (1980) A cognitive model of the antecedents and consequences of satisfaction decisions. J. Marketing Res. 17(4):460–469.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (1993) Cognitive, affective, and attribute bases of the satisfaction response. J. Consumer Res. 20(3):418–430.Crossref, Google Scholar
- Oracle (2016) Can virtual experiences replace reality? Accessed June 23, 2020, https://www.oracle.com/webfolder/s/delivery_production/docs/FY16h1/doc35/CXResearchVirtualExperiences.pdf.Google Scholar
- (1985) A conceptual model of service quality and its implications for future research. J. Marketing 49(4):41–50.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (1986) The elaboration likelihood model of persuasion. Communication and Persuasion: Central and Peripheral Routes to Attitude Change (Springer, New York), 1–24.Google Scholar
- (1998) Representativeness, relevance, and the use of feelings in decision making. J. Consumer Res. 25(2):144–159.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2006) Emotion and cognition: Insights from studies of the human amygdala. Annual Rev. Psych. 57(1):27–53.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2001) Service with a smile: Emotional contagion in the service encounter. Acad. Management J. 44(5):1018–1027.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2008) Bilingualism and the emotional intensity of advertising language. J. Consumer Res. 35(6):1012–1025.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (1990) Busy stores and demanding customers: How do they affect the display of positive emotion? Acad. Management J. 33(3):623–637.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2008) When online meets offline: An expectancy violations theory perspective on modality switching. J. Comm. 58(1):20–39.Crossref, Google Scholar
- Reports and Data (2021) Affective computing market. Report. Accessed June 23, 2021, https://www.researchandmarkets.com/reports/5457517/global-affective-computing-market-forecasts.Google Scholar
- (2021) Estimating the impact of “humanizing” customer service chatbots. Inform. Systems Res. 32(3):736–751.Link, Google Scholar
- (1983) Mood, misattribution, and judgments of well-being: Informative and directive functions of affective states. J. Personality Soc. Psych. 45(3):513–523.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2013) Judging the book by its cover? How consumers decode conspicuous consumption cues in buyer–seller relationships. J. Marketing Res. 50(3):334–347.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2019) Emotion AI, explained. Accessed June 23, 2020, https://mitsloan.mit.edu/ideas-made-to-matter/emotion-ai-explained.Google Scholar
- (2017) Venturing into the uncanny valley of mind—The influence of mind attribution on the acceptance of human-like characters in a virtual reality setting. Cognition 160:43–50.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (1994) An assessment of the relationship between service quality and customer satisfaction in the formation of consumers’ purchase intentions. J. Retailing 70(2):163–178.Crossref, Google Scholar
- The Economist (2022) Could artificial intelligence become sentient? The Economist. Accessed July 17, 2022, https://www.economist.com/the-economist-explains/2022/06/14/could-artificial-intelligence-become-sentient.Google Scholar
- (2022) The Google engineer who thinks the company’s AI has come to life. The Washington Post. Accessed July 17, 2022, https://www.washingtonpost.com/podcasts/post-reports/the-google-engineer-who-thinks-its-ai-has-come-alive/.Google Scholar
- (2002) Mechanisms linking employee affective delivery and customer behavioral intentions. J. Appl. Psych. 87(5):1001–1008.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2011) Convergent and divergent responses to emotional displays of ingroup and outgroup. Emotion 11(2):286–298.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2009) How emotions regulate social life: The emotions as social information (EASI) model. Current Directions Psych. Sci. 18(3):184–188.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2007) Expressing anger in conflict: When it helps and when it hurts. J. Appl. Psych. 92(6):1557–1569.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2022) The social effects of emotions. Annual Rev. Psych. 73(1):629–658.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2010) An interpersonal approach to emotion in social decision making: The emotions as social information model. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, vol. 42 (Academic Press, Cambridge, MA), 45–96.Google Scholar
- (2019) Switching schemas: Do effects of mindless interactions with agents carry over to humans and vice versa? J. Comput. Mediated Comm. 24(6):335–352.Google Scholar
- (2014) Virtual customer service agents: Using social presence and personalization to shape online service encounters. J. Comput. Mediated Comm. 19(3):529–545.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2021) Robots at work: People prefer—and forgive—service robots with perceived feelings. J. Appl. Psych. 106(10):1557–1572.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2017) Keep your cool or let it out: Nonlinear effects of expressed arousal on perceptions of consumer reviews. J. Marketing Res. 54(3):447–463.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2019) Acting like humans? Anthropomorphism and consumer’s willingness to pay in electronic commerce. J. Management Inform. Systems 36(2):450–477.Crossref, Google Scholar

