Unraveling Generative AI from a Human Intelligence Perspective: A Battery of Experiments

Published Online:https://doi.org/10.1287/isre.2023.0487

References

  • Achiam J, Adler S, Agarwal S, Ahmad L, Akkaya I, Aleman FL, Almeida D, et al. (2023) GPT-4 technical report. Preprint, submitted March 15, https://arxiv.org/abs/2303.08774.Google Scholar
  • Adler A (1938) Social Interest: A Challenge to Mankind (Faber & Faber, London), 309.Google Scholar
  • Adomavicius G, Yang M (2022) Integrating behavioral, economic, and technical insights to understand and address algorithmic bias: A human-centric perspective. ACM Trans. Management Inform. Systems 13(3):1–27.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Adomavicius G, Zhang J (2016) Classification, ranking, and top-k stability of recommendation algorithms. INFORMS J. Comput. 28(1):129–147.LinkGoogle Scholar
  • Albrecht K (2009) Social Intelligence: The New Science of Success (John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken, NJ).Google Scholar
  • Amabile TM (1983) The social psychology of creativity: A componential conceptualization. J. Personality Soc. Psych. 45(2):357–376.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Amabile TM (2018) Creativity in Context: Update to the Social Psychology of Creativity (Routledge, New York).CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Bandura A (1986) Social Foundations of Thought and Action (Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ). 1986(23–28), 2.Google Scholar
  • Baron-Cohen S, Leslie AM, Frith U (1985) Does the autistic child have a theory of mind? Cognition 21(1):37–46.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Beldoch M (1964) Sensitivity to expression of emotional meaning in three modes of communication. Davitz JR, ed. The Communication of Emotional Meaning (McGraw-Hill, New York), 31–42.Google Scholar
  • Berente N, Gu B, Recker J, Santhanam R (2021) Managing artificial intelligence. MIS Quart. 45(3).CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Brunt A (2005) Critical thinking test. Aptitude-Test.com. Accessed April 21, 2026, https://aptitude-test.com/aptitude-tests/verbal/critical-thinking/.Google Scholar
  • Brynjolfsson E, Li D, Raymond LR (2023) Generative AI at work. Technical report, National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, MA.Google Scholar
  • Brynjolfsson E, Mitchell T, Rock D (2018) What can machines learn and what does it mean for occupations and the economy? AEA Papers Proc. 108:43–47.Google Scholar
  • Bubeck S, Chandrasekaran V, Eldan R, Gehrke J, Horvitz E, Kamar E, Lee P, et al. (2023) Sparks of artificial general intelligence: Early experiments with GPT-4. Preprint, submitted March 22, https://arxiv.org/abs/2303.12712.Google Scholar
  • Burtch G, Lee D, Chen Z (2023) The consequences of generative AI for UGC and online community engagement. Preprint, submitted July 29, http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4521754.Google Scholar
  • Cantor N, Kihlstrom JF (1987) Personality and Social Intelligence (Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ).Google Scholar
  • Carmeli A, Gelbard R, Gefen D (2010) The importance of innovation leadership in cultivating strategic fit and enhancing firm performance. Leadership Quart. 21(3):339–349.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Carroll JB (1993) Human Cognitive Abilities: A Survey of Factor-Analytic Studies (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK).CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Cattell RB (1963) Theory of fluid and crystallized intelligence: A critical experiment. J. Ed. Psych. 54(1):1.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Chen M, Tworek J, Jun H, Yuan Q, Pinto H, Kaplan J, Edwards H, et al. (2021) Evaluating large language models trained on code. Preprint, submitted July 7, https://arxiv.org/abs/2107.03374.Google Scholar
  • Cheng L, Li X, Bing L (2023) Is GPT-4 a good data analyst? Findings of the Association for Computational Linguistics: EMNLP 2023, 9496–9514.Google Scholar
  • Cheng Z, Lee D, Tambe P (2022) InnoVAE: Generative AI for understanding patents and innovation. Preprint, submitted April 13, http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3868599.Google Scholar
  • Cobbe K, Kosaraju V, Bavarian M, Chen M, Jun H, Kaiser L, Plappert M, et al. (2021) Training verifiers to solve math word problems. Preprint, submitted October 27, https://arxiv.org/abs/2110.14168.Google Scholar
  • Coleman JS (1994) Foundations of Social Theory (Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA).Google Scholar
  • Côté S, Miners CT (2006) Emotional intelligence, cognitive intelligence, and job performance. Admin. Sci. Quart. 51(1):1–28.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Davis MH (1983) Measuring individual differences in empathy: Evidence for a multidimensional approach. J. Personality Soc. Psych. 44(1):113–126.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Dewey J (1933) How We Think: A Restatement of the Relation of Reflective Thinking to the Educative Process’s, vol. 8 (D.C. Heath & Co., Boston).Google Scholar
  • Dua D, Wang Y, Dasigi P, Stanovsky G, Singh S, Gardner M (2019) Drop: A reading comprehension benchmark requiring discrete reasoning over paragraphs. Proc. 2019 Conf. North Amer. Chapter Assoc. Comput. Linguistics: Human Language Technologies, Volume 1 (Long and Short Papers) (Association for Computational Linguistics, Stroudsburg, PA), 2368–2378.Google Scholar
  • Eloundou T, Manning S, Mishkin P, Rock D (2024) GPTs are GPTs: Labor market impact potential of LLMs. Science 384(6702):1306–1308. Google Scholar
  • Ennis RH (1987) A taxonomy of critical thinking dispositions and abilities. Baron JB, Sternberg RJ, eds. Teaching Thinking Skills: Theory and Practice (W.H. Freeman, New York), 9–26.Google Scholar
  • Evelina Ascalon M, Schleicher DJ, Born MP (2008) Cross-cultural social intelligence: An assessment for employees working in cross-national contexts. Cross Cultural Management 15(2):109–130.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Feng J, Li X, Zhang X (2019) Online product reviews-triggered dynamic pricing: Theory and evidence. Inform. Systems Res. 30(4):1107–1123.LinkGoogle Scholar
  • Forrester JW (1994) System dynamics, systems thinking, and soft or. Systems Dynamics Rev. 10(2–3):245–256.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Frederick S (2005) Cognitive reflection and decision making. J. Econom. Perspective 19(4):25–42.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Freedman J, Ghini M, Fiedeldey-Van Dijk C (2005) White paper: Emotional intelligence and performance. Technical report, Six Seconds: The Emotional Intelligence Network, San Francisco.Google Scholar
  • Gardner HE (2008) Multiple Intelligences: New Horizons in Theory and Practice (Basic Books, New York).Google Scholar
  • Gardner HE (2011) Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences (Basic Books, New York).Google Scholar
  • Gick ML, Holyoak KJ (1980) Analogical problem solving. Cognitive Psych. 12(3):306–355.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Goleman D (1998) Working with Emotional Intelligence (Bantam, New York).Google Scholar
  • Goleman D (2005) Emotional Intelligence: Why It Can Matter More than IQ (Bantam, New York).Google Scholar
  • Goleman D (2020) Emotional Intelligence (Bloomsbury Publishing, London).Google Scholar
  • Gottfredson LS (1997) Why g matters: The complexity of everyday life. Intelligence 24(1):79–132.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Gottfredson LS (2003) G, jobs and life. Nyborg H, ed. The Scientific Study of General Intelligence: Tribute to Arthur R. Jensen (Pergamon, Amsterdam), 293–342.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Gottfredson LS (2004) Life, death, and intelligence. J. Cognitive Ed. Psych. 4(1):23–46.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Grandey A, Diefendorff J, Rupp DE (2013a) Emotional Labor in the 21st Century: Diverse Perspectives on Emotion Regulation at Work (Routledge, New York).CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Grandey AA, Diefendorff JM, Rupp DE (2013b) Bringing emotional labor into focus: A review and integration of three research lenses. Grandey AA, Diefendorff JM, Rupp DE, eds. Emotional Labor in the 21st Century: Diverse Perspectives on Emotion Regulation at Work (Routledge, New York), 3–27.Google Scholar
  • Guilford JP (1956) The structure of intellect. Psych. Bull. 53(4):267.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Guilford JP (1967) The Nature of Human Intelligence (McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York).Google Scholar
  • Guo Y, Yin X, Liu D, Xu SX (2021) Effect of AI chatbotś gender in the business context: Empirical evidence from debt collection. Acad. Management Proc. 2021:15449.Google Scholar
  • Happé FGE (1994) An advanced test of theory of mind: Understanding of story characters’ thoughts and feelings by able autistic, mentally handicapped, and normal children and adults. J. Autism Developement Disorders 24(2):129–154.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Hendrycks D, Burns C, Basart S, Zou A, Mazeika M, Song D, Steinhardt J (2020) Measuring massive multitask language understanding. Preprint, submitted September 7, https://arxiv.org/abs/2009.03300.Google Scholar
  • Herpertz S, Nizielski S, Hock M, Schütz A (2016) The relevance of emotional intelligence in personnel selection for high emotional labor jobs. PLoS One 11(4):e0154432.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Higgins DM, Peterson JB, Pihl RO, Lee AG (2007) Prefrontal cognitive ability, intelligence, big five personality, and the prediction of advanced academic and workplace performance. J. Personality Soc. Psych. 93(2):298.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Hoffmann J, Borgeaud S, Mensch A, Buchatskaya E, Cai T, Rutherford E, Casas D, et al. (2022) Training compute-optimal large language models. Preprint, submitted March 29, https://arxiv.org/abs/2203.15556.Google Scholar
  • Hu Y, Hong Y (2022) SHEDR: An end-to-end neural event detection and recommendation framework for hyperlocal news using social media. INFORMS J. Comput. 34(2):790–806.Google Scholar
  • Hughes DE, Le Bon J, Rapp A (2013) Gaining and leveraging customer-based competitive intelligence: The pivotal role of social capital and salesperson adaptive selling skills. J. Acad. Marketing Sci. 41:91–110.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Hunter JE (1986) Cognitive ability, cognitive aptitudes, job knowledge, and job performance. J. Vocational Behav. 29(3):340–362.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Intelligence S (2003) Intelligence and the workplace. Handbook of Psych. 107.Google Scholar
  • Judge TA, Colbert AE, Ilies R (2004) Intelligence and leadership: A quantitative review and test of theoretical propositions. J. Appl. Psych. 89(3):542.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Kam PK (2020) ‘Social work is not just a job’: The qualities of social workers from the perspective of service users. J. Social Work 20(6):775–796.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Koman ES, Wolff SB (2008) Emotional intelligence competencies in the team and team leader: A multi-level examination of the impact of emotional intelligence on team performance. J. Management Development 27(1):55–75.Google Scholar
  • Kumar A, Wan XS, Li X (2020) Retargeted versus generic product recommendations: When is it valuable to give retargeted recommendations? Xitong, Retargeted Versus Generic Product Recommendations: When Is It Valuable to Give Retargeted Recommendations.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Le Mens G, Kovács B, Hannan MT, Pros G (2023) Uncovering the semantics of concepts using gpt-4. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 120(49):e2309350120.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Lee D, Hosanagar K (2021) How do product attributes and reviews moderate the impact of recommender systems through purchase stages? Management Sci. 67(1):524–546.LinkGoogle Scholar
  • Lee D, Hosanagar K, Nair HS (2018) Advertising content and consumer engagement on social media: Evidence from Facebook. Management Sci. 64(11):5105–5131.LinkGoogle Scholar
  • Leuner B (1966) Emotional intelligence and emancipation. A psychodynamic study on women. Prax. Kinderpsychol. Kinderpsychiatr. 15(6):196–203.Google Scholar
  • Li X, Grahl J, Hinz O (2022) How do recommender systems lead to consumer purchases? A causal mediation analysis of a field experiment. Inform. Systems Res. 33(2):620–637.LinkGoogle Scholar
  • Liu Y, Han T, Ma S, Zhang J, Yang Y, Tian J, He H, et al. (2023) Summary of ChatGPT/GPT-4 research and perspective towards the future of large language models. Preprint, submitted April 4, https://arxiv.org/abs/2304.01852.Google Scholar
  • MacCann C, Roberts RD (2008) New paradigms for assessing emotional intelligence: Theory and data. Emotion. 8(4):540–551.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Markusen A, Wassall GH, DeNatale D, Cohen R (2008) Defining the creative economy: Industry and occupational approaches. Econom. Development Quart. 22(1):24–45.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Marlowe HA (1986) Social intelligence: Evidence for multidimensionality and construct independence. J. Ed. Psych. 78(1):52–58.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Martin RA, Lefcourt HM (1984) Situational humor response questionnaire: Quantitative measure of sense of humor. J. Personality Soc. Psych. 47(1):145–155.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Martin MO, Mullis IV, Kennedy AM (2007) Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS): PIRLS 2006 Technical Report (International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement, Chestnut Hill, MA).Google Scholar
  • Masterson JJ, Evans LH, Aloia M (1993) Verbal analogical reasoning in children with language-learning disabilities. J. Speech Hearing Res. 36:76–82.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Mayer JD, Geher G (1996) Emotional intelligence and the identification of emotion. Intelligence 22(2):89–113.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Mayer JD, Salovey P, Caruso DR (2002) Mayer–Salovey–Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT) User’s Manual (Multi-Health Systems, Toronto).Google Scholar
  • Mayer JD, Salovey P, Caruso DR (2008) Emotional intelligence: New ability or eclectic traits? Amer. Psych. 63(6):503.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Mishra A (2021) Do organizations need emotionally intelligent leadership at the workplace? Franco MJB, ed. Leadership: New Insights (IntechOpen, London).Google Scholar
  • Mishra PS, Mohapatra AD (2010) Relevance of emotional intelligence for effective job performance: An empirical study. Vikalpa 35(1):53–62.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Moore SM, Dolansky MA, Singh M, Palmieri P, Alemi F (2011) Systems Thinking Scale (STS) User Manual, Version 3–3–2011 (Frances Payne Bolton School of Nursing, Case Western Reserve University).Google Scholar
  • Morgeson FP, Delaney-Klinger K, Hemingway MA (2005) The importance of job autonomy, cognitive ability, and job-related skill for predicting role breadth and job performance. J. Appl. Psych. 90(2):399.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Moss FA, Hunt T, Omwake KT (1949) Social intelligence test. Psych. Monographs 61(10):1–28.Google Scholar
  • Murphy KR (1989) Is the relationship between cognitive ability and job performance stable over time? Human Performance 2(3):183–200.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Nation K, Snowling MJ (1998) Individual differences in contextual facilitation: Evidence from dyslexia and poor reading comprehension. Child Development 69(4):996–1011.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Nguyen NN, Nham PT, Takahashi Y (2019) Relationship between ability-based emotional intelligence, cognitive intelligence, and job performance. Sustainability 11(8):2299.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Noy S, Zhang W (2023) Experimental evidence on the productivity effects of generative artificial intelligence. Science (1979) 381(6654):187–192.Google Scholar
  • O’Boyle EH Jr, Humphrey RH, Pollack JM, Hawver TH, Story PA (2011) The relation between emotional intelligence and job performance: A meta-analysis. J. Organ. Behav. 32(5):788–818.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Olson JA, Nahas J, Chmoulevitch D, Cropper SJ, Webb ME (2021) Naming unrelated words predicts creativity. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 118(25):e2022340118.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • OpenAI (2023) GPT-4 technical report. Preprint, submitted March 15, https://arxiv.org/abs/2303.08774.Google Scholar
  • Putnam RD (2015) Bowling alone: America’s declining social capital. The City Reader (Routledge, New York), 188–196.Google Scholar
  • Riggio RE, Reichard RJ (2008) The emotional and social intelligences of effective leadership: An emotional and social skill approach. J. Managerial Psych. 23(2):169–185.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Salovey P, Mayer JD (1990) Emotional intelligence. Imagination Cognition Personality 9(3):185–211.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Schmidt FL (2002) The role of general cognitive ability and job performance: Why there cannot be a debate. Human Performance 15(1–2):187–210.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Schmidt FL, Hunter JE (1998) The validity and utility of selection methods in personnel psychology: Practical and theoretical implications of 85 years of research findings. Psych. Bull. 124(2):262.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Schmidt FL, Hunter J (2004) General mental ability in the world of work: Occupational attainment and job performance. J. Personality Soc. Psych. 86(1):162.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Shahhosseini M, Silong AD, Ismaill IA, Uli JN (2012) The role of emotional intelligence on job performance. Internat. J. Bus. Soc. Sci. 3(21).Google Scholar
  • Spearman C (1961) “General intelligence” objectively determined and measured. Jenkins JJ, Paterson DG, eds. Studies in Individual Differences: The Search for Intelligence (Appleton-Century-Crofts, New York), 59–73.Google Scholar
  • St John PA (1995) Testing the construct validity of the Sulliman scale of social interest. Individual Psych. 51(1):58–70.Google Scholar
  • Sterman JD (2002) System dynamics: Systems thinking and modeling for a complex world. MIT Sloan School of Management Working Paper ESD-WP-2003-01.13, Cambridge, MA.Google Scholar
  • Sternberg RJ (1984) Toward a triarchic theory of human intelligence. Behav. Brain Sci. 7(2):269–287.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Sternberg R (1988) The Triarchic Mind: A New Theory of Human Intelligence (Cambridge University Press, New York).Google Scholar
  • Sternberg RJ (1997) The concept of intelligence and its role in lifelong learning and success. Amer. Psych. 52(10):1030.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Sternberg RJ, Nigro G (1980) Developmental patterns in the solution of verbal analogies. Child Developement 51:27–38.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Sternberg RJ, Wagner RK, eds. (1986) Practical Intelligence: Nature and Origins of Competence in the Everyday World (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK).Google Scholar
  • Sternberg RJ (1985) Beyond IQ: A Triarchic Theory of Human Intelligence (CUP Archive, Punjab, India).Google Scholar
  • Sun X, Han M, Feng J (2019) Helpfulness of online reviews: Examining review informativeness and classification thresholds by search products and experience products. Decision Support Systems 124:113099.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Thorndike EL (1920) Intelligence and its uses. Harper’s Magazine 140:227–235.Google Scholar
  • Thurstone LL (1938) Primary mental abilities: Psychometric monographs no. 1. The Measurement of Intelligence (Springer, New York), 131–136.Google Scholar
  • Torrance EP (1966) Torrance tests of creative thinking. Ed. Psych. Measurements.Google Scholar
  • Tsai PCF, Chaichanasakul A, Zhao R, Flores LY, Lopez SJ (2014) Development and validation of the strengths self-efficacy scale (SSES). J. Career Assessment 22(2):221–232.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Van Lange PA, Higgins ET, Kruglanski AW (2011) Handbook of theories of social psychology. Handbook of Theories of Social Psychology, 1–568.Google Scholar
  • Wang W, Yang M, Sun T (2023a) Human-AI co-creation in product ideation: The dual view of quality and diversity. Preprint, submitted December 20, https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4668241.Google Scholar
  • Wang W, Bell JJ, Dotson JP, Schweidel DA (2023b) Generative AI and artists: Consumer preferences for style and fair compensation. Preprint, submitted May 1, https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4428509.Google Scholar
  • Wang L, Wang CA, Xu SX, Guo F, Li M (2020) People you may know: Friend recommendation, network formation, and online community participation. Proc. 41st Internat. Conf. Inform. Systems (ICIS 2020).Google Scholar
  • Wang L, Huang N, Hong Y, Liu L, Guo X, Chen G (2023c) Voice-based AI in call center customer service: A natural field experiment. Production Oper. Management 32(4):1002–1018.Google Scholar
  • Watson G, Glaser EM (2002) Watson–Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal: UK Edition Manual (The Psychological Corporation, London).Google Scholar
  • Wechsler D (1943) Non-intellective factors in general intelligence. J. Abnormal Soc. Psych. 38(1):101.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Xiao C, Xu SX, Zhang K (2023) Multimodal data augmentation for image captioning using diffusion models. Preprint, submitted May 3, https://arxiv.org/abs/2305.01855.Google Scholar
  • Xue M, Cao X, Feng X, Gu B, Zhang Y (2022) Is college education less necessary with AI? Evidence from firm-level labor structure changes. J. Management Inform. Systems 39(3):865–905.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Yang M, Adomavicius G, Burtch G, Ren Y (2018) Mind the gap: Accounting for measurement error and misclassification in variables generated via data mining. Inform. Systems Res. 29(1):4–24.LinkGoogle Scholar
  • Yang J, Jin H, Tang R, Han X, Feng Q, Jiang H, Yin B, et al. (2023) Harnessing the power of LLMs in practice: A survey on ChatGPT and beyond. Preprint, submitted April 26, https://arxiv.org/abs/2304.13712.Google Scholar
  • You S, Yang CL, Li X (2022) Algorithmic versus human advice: Does presenting prediction performance matter for algorithm appreciation? J. Management Inform. Systems 39(2):336–365.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Zaccaro SJ, Rittman AL, Marks MA (2001) Team leadership. Leadership Quart. 12(4):451–483.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Zeidner M, Matthews G, Roberts RD (2004) Emotional intelligence in the workplace: A critical review. Appl. Psych. 53(3):371–399.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Zhang J, Adomavicius G, Gupta A, Ketter W (2020) Consumption and performance: Understanding longitudinal dynamics of recommender systems via an agent-based simulation framework. Inform. Systems Res. 31(1):76–101.LinkGoogle Scholar
  • Zhang C, Zhang C, Li C, Qiao Y, Zheng S, Dam SK, Zhang M, et al. (2023) One small step for generative AI, one giant leap for AGI: A complete survey on ChatGPT in AIGC era. Preprint, submitted April 4, https://arxiv.org/abs/2304.06488.Google Scholar
  • Zhou J (2003) Research on employee creativity: A critical review and directions for future research. Research in Personnel and Human Resource Management (Elsevier, Amsterdam).CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Zhou E, Lee D (2024) Generative AI, human creativity, and art. PNAS Nexus 3(3):pgae052.Google Scholar
INFORMS site uses cookies to store information on your computer. Some are essential to make our site work; Others help us improve the user experience. By using this site, you consent to the placement of these cookies. Please read our Privacy Statement to learn more.