Discretionary Remote Working Helps Mothers Without Harming Non-mothers: Evidence from a Field Experiment
Published Online:11 Sep 2019https://doi.org/10.1287/mnsc.2018.3237
References
- (1990) Hierarchies, jobs, bodies: A theory of gendered organizations. Gender Soc. 4(2):139–158.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2013) Infant feeding consumerism in the age of intensive mothering and risk society. J. Consumer Culture 13(3):387–405.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2017) Gender gaps in performance: Evidence from young lawyers. J. Political Econom. 125(5):1306–1355.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2006) Breaking the Mold: Redesigning Work for Productive and Satisfying Lives, 2nd ed. (Cornell University Press, Ithaca, NY).Google Scholar
- (2017) Field experiments across the social sciences. Ann. Rev. Sociol. 43:41–73.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2008) Working for less? Women’s part-time wage penalties across countries. Feminist Econom. 14(1):37–72.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (1999) Scaling back: Dual-earner couples’ work-family strategies. J. Marriage Family 61(4):995–1007.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2007) Cognitive bias and the motherhood penalty. Hastings Law J. 59(6):101–129.Google Scholar
- (2004) Are Emily and Greg more employable than Lakisha and Jamal? Amer. Econom. Rev. 94(4):991–1013.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2010) Dynamics of the gender gap for young professionals in the financial and corporate sectors. Amer. Econom. J. 2(3):228–255.Google Scholar
- (2006) The Changing Rhythms of American Family Life (Russell Sage, New York).Google Scholar
- (2003) Competing Devotions: Career and Family Among Women Executives (Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA).Google Scholar
- (2009) Work without end? Scheduling flexibility and work-to-family conflict among stockbrokers. Work Occupations 36(4):279–317.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2014) Consequences of flexibility stigma among academic scientists and engineers. Work Occupations 41(1):86–110.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2002) Employees’ use of work-family policies and the workplace social context. Soc. Forces 80(3):813–845.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (1982) Introduction to Social Research (Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ).Google Scholar
- (2015) Does working from home work? Evidence from a Chinese experiment. Quart. J. Econom. 130(1):165–218.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2007) From iron cage to iron shield? How bureaucracy enables temporal flexibility for professional service workers. Organ. Sci. 18(2):297–314.Link, Google Scholar
- (2011) The initial assignment affect: Local employer practices and positive career outcomes for work-family program users. Amer. Sociol. Rev. 76(2):291–319.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2017) The design of field experiments with survey outcomes: A framework for selecting more efficient, robust, and ethical designs. Political Anal. 25(4):435–464.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (1983) Michigan organizational assessment questionnaire. Seashore SE, Lawler EE, Mirvis PH, Camman C, eds. Assessing Organizational Change: A Guide to Methods, Measures, and Practices (Wiley-Interscience, New York), 71–138.Google Scholar
- (2010) Reinforcing separate spheres: The effect of spousal overwork on men’s and women’s employment in dual-earner households. Amer. Sociol. Rev. 75(2):303–329.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2014) Overwork and the slow convergence in the gender gap in wages. Amer. Sociol. Rev. 79(3):457–484.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2016) Task segregation as a mechanism for within-job inequality: Women and men of the transportation security administration. Admin. Sci. Quart. 61(2):184–216.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (1998) Division of labor among lesbian and heterosexual parents: Associations with child’s adjustment. J. Family Psych. 12(3):402–419.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (1988) Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences (Academic Press, San Diego).Google Scholar
- (2014) Tournament theory: Thirty years of contests and competitions. J. Management 40(1):16–47.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2006) Biased estimators? Comparing status and statistical theories of gender discrimination. Thye SR, Lawler EJ, eds. Advances in Group Processes, vol. 23 (Emerald Group Publishing, Bingley, UK), 89–116.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2007) Getting a job: Is there a motherhood penalty? Amer. J. Sociol. 112(5):1297–1338.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2014) Redesigning, redefining work. Work Occupations 41(1):3–17.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (1974) Greedy Institutions: Patterns of Undivided Commitment (Free Press, New York).Google Scholar
- (2011) The end of the gender revolution? Gender role attitudes from 1977 to 2008. Amer. J. Sociol. 117(1):259–289.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (1958) Planning of Experiments (John Wiley & Sons, New York).Google Scholar
- (2006) Family-friendly organizations? Work and family programs in the 1990s. Work Occupations 33(2):191–223.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2013) Organizational citizenship behavior, version 2.0: A review and qualitative investigation of OCBs for knowledge workers at Google and beyond. Acad. Management Perspect. 27(3):219–237.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2015) Rage against the iron cage: The varied effects of bureaucratic personnel reforms on diversity. Amer. Sociol. Rev. 80(5):1014–1044.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2011) Promises I Can Keep: Why Poor Women Put Motherhood Before Marriage (University of California Press, Oakland).Google Scholar
- (2015) Being a good mom: Low-income, black single mothers negotiate intensive mothering. J. Family Issues 36(3):351–370.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2016) Do highly paid, highly skilled women experience the largest motherhood penalty? Amer. Sociol. Rev. 81(6):1161–1189.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (1999) The Part Time Paradox: Time Norms, Professional Lives, Family and Gender (Routledge, New York).Google Scholar
- (2017) Walnut consumption increases activation of the insula to highly desirable food cues: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, cross-over fMRI study. Diabetes Obesity Metabolism 20(1):173–177.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (1935) The Design of Experiments (Hafner, New York).Google Scholar
- (2015) Discrimination in the credential society: An audit study of race and college selectivity in the labor market. Soc. Forces 93(4):1451–1479.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2007) The good, the bad, and the unknown about telecommuting: Meta-analysis of psychological mediators and individual consequences. J. Appl. Psych. 92(6):1524–1541.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (1996) The role of employers in addressing the needs of employed parents. J. Soc. Issues 52(3):111–136.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2002) Under what conditions do long work hours affect psychological distress? Work Occupations 29(4):483–497.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2007) Secrets and lies: Breastfeeding and professional paid work. Soc. Sci. Medicine 65(2):393–403.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2015) Compared with men, women view professional advancement as equally attainable, but less desirable. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 112(40):12354–12359.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2004) Blessing or curse? Work-family policies and mother’s wage growth over time. Work Occupations 31(3):367–394.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2002) Coverage and effectiveness of family-responsive workplace policies. Human Resource Management Rev. 12(3):313–337.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2016) Telecommuting and earnings trajectories among American women and men 1989–2008. Soc. Forces 95(1):217–250.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2011) Boundary-spanning work demands and their consequences for guilt and psychological distress. J. Health Soc. Behav. 52(1):43–57.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2008) Limited access: Disparities in flexible work schedules and work-at-home. J. Family Econom. Issues 29(1):86–109.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2014) A grand gender convergence: Its last chapter. Amer. Econom. Rev. 104(4):1091–1119.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (1976) Within-subjects designs: To use or not to use? Psych. Bull. 83(2):314–320.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2008) Schedule flexibility and stress: Linking formal flexible arrangements and perceived flexibility to employee health. Comm. Work Family 11(2):199–214.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (1996) The Cultural Contradictions of Motherhood (Yale University Press, New Haven, CT).Google Scholar
- (2002) Creating a Life: Professional Women and the Quest for Children (Talk Maramax Books, New York).Google Scholar
- (1979) The two-period cross-over clinical trial. British J. Clinical Pharmacol. 8(1):7–20.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2008) Creating flexible work arrangements through idiosyncratic deals. J. Appl. Psych. 93(3):655–664.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2013) The principles of experimental design and their application in sociology. Annual Rev. Sociol. 39:27–49.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2004) The Time Divide: Work, Family, and Gender Inequality (Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA).Google Scholar
- (2015) Design and Analysis of Cross-Over Trials (Taylor & Francis Group, London).Google Scholar
- (1992) Was there a Hawthorne effect? Amer. J. Sociol. 98(3):451–468.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2014) The motherhood penalty at midlife: Long-term effects of children on women’s careers. J. Marriage Family 76(1):56–72.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (1995) Gender differences in promotion in the United States and Norway. Res. Soc. Stratification Mobility 14:237–264.Google Scholar
- (2016) Whitened résumés: Race and self-preservation in the labor market. Admin. Sci. Quart. 61(3):469–502.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2010) Gendered challenge, gendered response: Confronting the ideal worker norm in a white-collar organization. Gender Soc. 24(3):281–303.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2014) Changing work and work-family conflict: Evidence from the work, family, and health network. Amer. Sociol. Rev. 79(3):485–516.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2016) Tethered lives: A couple-based perspective on the consequences of parenthood for time use, occupation, and wages. Soc. Sci. Res. 60(November):266–282.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2018) Children and gender inequality: Evidence from Denmark. NBER Working Paper 24219, National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, MA.Google Scholar
- (2018) Work-life flexibility for whom? Occupational status and work-life inequality in upper, middle, and lower level jobs. Acad. Management Ann. 12(1):5–36.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2006) Telecommuting, control, and boundary management: Correlates of policy use and practice, job control, and work-family effectiveness. J. Vocational Behav. 68(2):347–367.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2018) The mommy effect: Do women anticipate the employment effects of motherhood? NBER Working Paper 24740, National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, MA.Google Scholar
- (2004) The role of the father: An introduction. Lamb ME, ed. The Role of the Father (John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken, NJ), 1–31.Google Scholar
- (2000) Home Advantage: Social Class and Parental Intervention in Elementary Education (Rowman & Littlefield, Lanham, MD).Google Scholar
- (2002) Invisible inequality: Social class and childrearing in black families and white families. Amer. Sociol. Rev. 67(5):747–776.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2009) Field experiments in economics: The past, the present, and the future. Eur. Econom. Rev. 53(1):1–18.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2011) Was there really a Hawthorne effect at the Hawthorne plant? An analysis of the original illumination experiments. Amer. Econom. J. Appl. Econom. 3(1):224–238.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2001) Consuming “green”: The symbolic construction of organic foods. Rural Sociol. 11(3):197–210.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2006) A welfare state paradox: State interventions and women’s employment opportunities in 22 countries. Amer. J. Sociol. 111(6):1910–1949.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2018) Chronic nicotinamide riboside supplementation is well-tolerated and elevates NAD+ in healthy middle-aged and older adults. Nature Comm. 9(1286):1–11.Google Scholar
- (2006) Gender differences in restricting work efforts because of family responsibilities. J. Marriage Family 68(4):859–869.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2008) Gender differences in providing urgent childcare among dual-earner parents. Soc. Forces 87(1):273–297.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2009) Gender differences in sleep disruption among retail workers. Amer. Sociol. Rev. 74(6):989–1007.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2010) Gender, work-family responsibilities, and sleep. Gender Soc. 24(6):746–768.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (1993) Gay parenting couples: Parenting arrangements, arrangement satisfaction, and relationship satisfaction. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Palo Alto University, Palo Alto, CA.Google Scholar
- (2005) Policies for reconciling parenthood and employment: Drawing lessons from Europe. Challenge 48(5):39–61.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2013) Vast majority of wage earners are working harder, and for not much more: Trends in U.S. work hours and wages 1979–2007. Issue Brief348, Economic Policy Institute, Washington, DC.Google Scholar
- (2016) Does a flexibility/support organizational initiative improve high-tech employees’ well-being? Evidence from the work, family, and health network. Amer. Sociol. Rev. 81(1):134–164.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2004) Between mothers and markets: Constructing family identity through homemade food. J. Consumer Culture 4(3):361–384.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2014) Counterfactuals and Causal Inference, 2nd ed. (Cambridge University Press, New York).Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2010) Parenting Out of Control: Anxious Parents in Uncertain Times (New York University Press, New York).Google Scholar
- (1996) Development and validation of work-family conflict and family-work conflict scales. J. Appl. Psych. 81(4):400–410.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2001) The impact of domestic work on men’s and women’s wages. J. Marriage Family 63(4):1134–1145.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2015) The effect of fact-checking on elites: A field experiment on U.S. state legislators. Amer. J. Political Sci. 59(3):628–640.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2011) Revisiting the gender gap in time-use patterns: Multitasking and well-being among mothers and fathers in dual-earner families. Amer. Sociol. Rev. 76(6):809–833.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (1973) Communication by the total experimental situation: Why it is important, how it is evaluated, and its significance for the ecological validity of findings. Pliner P, Krames L, Alloway TM, eds. Communication and Affect (Academic Press, New York), 157–191.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2008) Beyond the industrial paradigm: Market-embedded labor and the gender organization of global service work in China. Amer. Sociol. Rev. 73(1):15–36.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2003) The mark of a criminal record. Amer. J. Sociol. 108(5):937–975.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2015) Can we finish the revolution? Gender, work-family ideals, and institutional constraint. Amer. Sociol. Rev. 80(1):116–139.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2014) From motherhood penalties to husband premia: The new challenge for gender equality and family policy, lessons from Norway. Amer. J. Sociol. 119(5):1434–1472.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (1992) When small effects are impressive. Psych. Bull. 112(1):160–164.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2018) The mark of a woman’s record: Gender and academic performance in hiring. Amer. Sociol. Rev. 83(2):331–360.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2018) Organizations as network equalizers? Employer-provided childcare and the labor supply of working mothers. Stanford Graduate School of Business Working Paper 3610, Stanford University, Stanford, CA.Google Scholar
- (2004) Motherhood as a status characteristic. J. Soc. Issues 60(4):683–700.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2012) Is breastfeeding truly cost-free? Income consequences of breastfeeding for women. Amer. Sociol. Rev. 77(2):244–267.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2017) Class advantage, commitment penalty: The gendered effect of social class signals in an elite labor market. Amer. Sociol. Rev. 81(6):1097–1131.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2003) Management and the Worker, The Early Sociology of Management and Organizations, vol. 5 (Routledge, London). [First published 1939. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA.]Google Scholar
- (2006) Is there such a thing as “evidence-based management”? Acad. Management Rev. 31(2):256–269.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2016) Evidence-based practice: The psychology of EBP implementation. Annual Rev. Psych. 67:667–692.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (1971) Psychology and Life, 8th ed. (Scott, Foresman and Company, Glenview, IL).Google Scholar
- (1997) Becoming mothers and fathers: Parenthood, gender, and the division of labor. Gender Soc. 11(6):747–772.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2004) Are parents investing less in children? Trends in mothers’ and fathers’ time with children. Amer. J. Sociol. 110(1):1–43.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2013) Job-related resources and the pressures of working life. Soc. Sci. Res. 42(2):271–282.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (1992) The Baby Book: Everything You Need to Know About Your Baby—From Birth to Age Two (Little, Brown & Co., New York).Google Scholar
- (1992) A theory of structure: Duality, agency, and transformations. Amer. J. Sociol. 98(1):1–29.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2004) Engineering overwork: Bell curve management at a high-tech firm. Epstein CF, Kalleberg AL, eds. Fighting for Time: Shifting Boundaries of Work and Social Life (Russell Sage Foundation, New York), 191–218.Google Scholar
- (2011) False-positive psychology: Undisclosed flexibility in data collection and analysis allows presenting anything as significant. Psych. Sci. 22(11):1359–1366.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (1995) Gender, multiple roles, role meaning, and mental health. J. Health Soc. Behav. 36(2):182–194.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2008) Opting Out? Why Women Really Quit Careers and Head Home (University of California Press, Oakland).Google Scholar
- (2013) The all-or-nothing workplace: Flexibility stigma and ‘opting out’ among professional-managerial women. J. Soc. Issues 69(2):235–256.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (1997) Time waits for no (wo)man: An investigation of the gendered experience of domestic time. Sociology 31(2):221–239.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2016) Masculinity and the stalled revolution: How gender ideologies and norms shape young men’s responses to work-family policies. Gender Soc. 30(4):590–617.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2011) Pride and prejudice: Employment discrimination against openly gay men in the United States. Amer. J. Sociol. 117(2):586–626.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2010) Cultural foundations of tokenism. Amer. Sociol. Rev. 75(6):894–913.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2001) Patterns of interdependence in work teams: A two-level investigation of the relations with job and team satisfaction. Personality Psych. 54(1):51–69.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2004) The effects of work demands and resources on work-to-family conflict and facilitation. J. Marriage Family 66(2):398–412.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2007) Work, Family, and Community: Exploring Interconnections (Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, NJ).Google Scholar
- (2007) “Making up” the middle class child: Families, activities, and class dispositions. Sociology 41(6):1061–1077.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2008) Mothers in “good” and ‘bad” part-time jobs: Different problems, same results. Gender Soc. 22(6):752–777.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2005) Is there a flexiglass ceiling? Flexible work arrangements and wages in the United States. Soc. Sci. Res. 34(2):454–482.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2018) From opt out to blocked out: The challenges of labor market re-entry after family-related employment lapses. Amer. Sociol. Rev. 83(1):34–60.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (1998) The role-based performance scale: Validity analysis of a theory-based measure. Acad. Management J. 41(5):540–555.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2008) Use of formal and informal work family policies on the digital assembly line. Work Occupations 35(3):327–350.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2010) The mommy track divides: The impact of childbearing on wages of women of differing skill levels. NBER Working Paper 16582, National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, MA.Google Scholar
- (2001) Unbending Gender: Why Family and Work Conflict and What to Do About It (Oxford University Press, New York).Google Scholar
- (2010) Reshaping the Work-Family Divide: Why Men and Class Matter (Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA).Google Scholar
- (2013) Cultural schemas, social class, and the flexibility stigma. J. Soc. Issues 69(2):209–234.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2010) Experiment demand effects in economic experiments. Experiment. Econom. 13(1):75–98.Crossref, Google Scholar

