Shared or Solo? Platform Pricing and Rider Choices in Ride-Hailing

References

• Afèche P, Liu Z, Maglaras C (2023) Ride-hailing networks with strategic drivers: The impact of platform control capabilities on performance. Manufacturing Service Oper. Management 25(5):1890–1908.Link, Google Scholar
• Allon G, Chen D, Moon K (2023) Measuring strategic behavior by gig economy workers: Multihoming and repositioning. Preprint, submitted April 25, https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4411974.Google Scholar
• Alonso-Mora J, Samaranayake S, Wallar A, Frazzoli E, Rus D (2017) On-demand high-capacity ride-sharing via dynamic trip-vehicle assignment. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 114(3):462–467.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Amin S, Jaillet P, Pulyassary H, Wu M (2023) Market design for dynamic pricing and pooling in capacitated networks. Preprint, submitted July 8, https://arxiv.org/abs/2307.03994v1.Google Scholar
• Arora K, Zheng F, Girotra K (2024) Private vs. pooled transportation: Customer preference and design of green transport policy. Manufacturing Service Oper. Management 26(2):594–611.Link, Google Scholar
• Asadpour A, Lobel I, van Ryzin G (2023) Minimum earnings regulation and the stability of marketplaces. Manufacturing Service Oper. Management 25(1):254–265.Link, Google Scholar
• Bai J, So K, Tang C, Chen X, Wang H (2019) Coordinating supply and demand on an on-demand service platform with impatient customers. Manufacturing Service Oper. Management 21(3):556–570.Link, Google Scholar
• Bailey NTJ (1954) On queueing processes with bulk service. J. Roy. Statist. Soc. Ser. B Statist. Methodology 16(1):80–87.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Banerjee S, Johari R (2019) Ride sharing. Hu M, ed. Sharing Economy (Springer, Cham, Switzerland), 73–97.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Benjaafar S, Hu M (2020) Operations management in the age of the sharing economy: What is old and what is new? Manufacturing Service Oper. Management 22(1):93–101.Link, Google Scholar
• Benjaafar S, Ding JY, Kong G, Taylor T (2022) Labor welfare in on-demand service platforms. Manufacturing Service Oper. Management 24(1):110–124.Link, Google Scholar
• Bernstein F, DeCroix GA, Keskin NB (2021) Competition between two-sided platforms under demand and supply congestion effects. Manufacturing Service Oper. Management 23(5):1043–1061.Link, Google Scholar
• Cachon GP, Daniels KM, Lobel R (2017) The role of surge pricing on a service platform with self-scheduling capacity. Manufacturing Service Oper. Management 19(3):368–384.Link, Google Scholar
• Cachon GP, Dizdarer T, Tsoukalas G (2025) Pricing control and regulation on online service platforms. Management Sci. 72(4):3276–3290.Google Scholar
• Castro F, Ma H, Nazerzadeh H, Yan C (2021) Randomized FIFO mechanisms. Preprint, submitted November 21, https://arxiv.org/abs/2111.10706.Google Scholar
• Chu LY, Wan Z, Zhan D (2018) Harnessing the double-edged sword via routing: Information provision on ride-hailing platforms. Preprint, submitted October 1, https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3266250.Google Scholar
• Cohen MC, Zhang R (2022) Competition and coopetition for two-sided platforms. Production Oper. Management 31(5):1997–2014.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Cohen MC, Fiszer MD, Ratzon A, Sasson R (2023) Incentivizing commuters to carpool: A large field experiment with Waze. Manufacturing Service Oper. Management 25(4):1263–1284.Link, Google Scholar
• Commuter Connections (2025) POOL REWARDS: It pays to ride-share. Accessed September 7, 2025, https://www.commuterconnec tions.org/programs-and-incentives/pool-rewards/.Google Scholar
• Cui S, Wang Z, Yang L (2023) Innovative Priority Mechanisms in Service Operations: Theory and Applications (Springer Nature, Cham, Switzerland).Crossref, Google Scholar
• Cui S, Li K, Yang L, Wang J (2022) Slugging: Casual carpooling for urban transit. Manufacturing Service Oper. Management 24(5):2516–2534.Link, Google Scholar
• Daganzo CF, Ouyang Y, Yang H (2020) Analysis of ride-sharing with service time and detour guarantees. Transportation Res. Part B Methodological 140:130–150.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Daniels K, Turcic D (2023) Matching technology and competition in ride-hailing marketplaces. Preprint, submitted February 20, https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3918009.Google Scholar
• Dowling S (2018) How DiDi partnered and burned its way to market leadership in China. Crunchbase News. Accessed September 7, 2025, https://news.crunchbase.com/startups/how-didi-partnered-and-burned-its-way-to-market-leadership-in-china/.Google Scholar
• Downton F (1955) Waiting time in bulk service queues. J. Roy. Statist. Soc. B 17(2):256–261.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Edelson N, Hilderbrand D (1975) Congestion tolls for Poisson queuing processes. Econometrica 43(1):81–92.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Feng G, Kong G, Wang Z (2021) We are on the way: Analysis of on-demand ride-hailing systems. Manufacturing Service Oper. Management 23(5):1237–1256.Link, Google Scholar
• Glazer A, Hassin R (1987) Equilibrium arrivals in queues with bulk service at scheduled times. Transportation Sci. 21(4):273–278.Link, Google Scholar
• Guo P, Zhang ZG (2013) Strategic queueing behavior and its impact on system performance in service systems with the congestion-based staffing policy. Manufacturing Service Oper. Management 15(1):118–131.Link, Google Scholar
• Gurvich I, Lariviere M, Moreno A (2019) Operations in the on-demand economy: Staffing services with self-scheduling capacity. Hu M, ed. Sharing Economy (Springer, Cham, Switzerland), 249–278.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Hassin R (2016) Rational Queueing (CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL).Crossref, Google Scholar
• Hassin R, Haviv M (2003) To Queue or Not to Queue: Equilibrium Behavior in Queueing Systems, International Series in Operations Research and Management Science (Springer, New York).Crossref, Google Scholar
• Hu M (2021) From the classics to new tunes: A neoclassical view on sharing economy and innovative marketplaces. Production Oper. Management 30(6):1668–1685.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Hu M, Zhou Y (2022) Dynamic type matching. Manufacturing Service Oper. Management 24(1):125–142.Link, Google Scholar
• Hu X, Wan Z, Zhou Q (2026a) The profitability puzzle of on-demand carpooling: Pricing, matching, and route compatibility. Preprint, submitted March 1, https://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.5083645.Google Scholar
• Hu M, Zhang ZJ, Wang J (2026b) Worker classification in on-demand economy. Preprint, submitted January 17, https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4076484.Google Scholar
• Jacob J, Roet-Green R (2021) Ride solo or pool: Designing price-service menus for a ride-sharing platform. Eur. J. Oper. Res. 295(3):1008–1024.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Ke J, Yang H, Zheng Z (2020) On ride-pooling and traffic congestion. Transportation Res. Part B Methodological 142:213–231.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Latouche G, Ramaswami V (1999) Introduction to Matrix Analytic Methods in Stochastic Modeling (Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics, Philadelphia).Crossref, Google Scholar
• Lian Z, Martin S, Van Ryzin G (2021) Labor cost free-riding in the gig economy. Preprint, submitted February 18, https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3775888.Google Scholar
• Liu XA, Armony M (2024) Telemedicine versus in-person outpatient care: Equilibrium, capacity, and quality differentiation. Preprint, submitted November 17, https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.5048340.Google Scholar
• Lobel I, Martin S (2025) Detours in shared rides. Management Sci. 71(2):1716–1736.Link, Google Scholar
• Naor P (1969) The regulation of queue size by levying tolls. Econometrica 37(1):15–24.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Research and Markets (2023) Ride hailing global market report 2023. Global Newswire. Accessed September 7, 2025, https://www.globenewswire.com/news-release/2023/02/24/2615489/0/en/Ride-Hailing-Global-Market-Report-2023.html.Google Scholar
• Roet-Green R, Shetty A (2022) On designing a socially optimal expedited service and its impact on individual welfare. Manufacturing Service Oper. Management 24(3):1843–1858.Link, Google Scholar
• Siddiq A, Taylor TA (2022) Ride-hailing platforms: Competition and autonomous vehicles. Manufacturing Service Oper. Management 24(3):1511–1528.Link, Google Scholar
• Tang Y, Guo P, Tang C, Wang Y (2021) Gender-related operational issues arising from on-demand ride-hailing platforms: Safety concerns and system configuration. Production Oper. Management 30(10):3481–3496.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Taylor TA (2018) On-demand service platforms. Manufacturing Service Oper. Management 20(4):704–720.Link, Google Scholar
• Taylor TA (2024) Shared-ride efficiency of ride-hailing platforms. Manufacturing Service Oper. Management 26(5):1945–1961.Link, Google Scholar
• Tirole J (1988) The Theory of Industrial Organization (MIT Press, Cambridge, MA).Google Scholar
• Wang X, Zhang R (2022) Carpool services for ride-sharing platforms: Price and welfare implications. Naval Res. Logist. 69(4):550–565.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Yan C, Yan J, Shen Y (2026) Pricing shared rides. Oper. Res., ePub ahead of print March 16, https://doi.org/10.1287/opre.2023.0513.Google Scholar
• Yu JJ, Tang CS, Shen ZJM, Chen XM (2020) A balancing act of regulating on-demand ride services. Management Sci. 66(7):2975–2992.Link, Google Scholar
• Zang L, Hu Y, Roet-Green R, Sun S (2024) The impact of information-granularity and prioritization on patients’ care modality choice. Preprint, submitted February 15, https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4733392.Google Scholar
• Zhang K, Nie YM (2021) To pool or not to pool: Equilibrium, pricing and regulation. Transportation Res. Part B Methodological 151:59–90.Crossref, Google Scholar