Vaccines at Work: Experimental Evidence from a Firm Campaign

References

• Ager P, Worm Hansen C, Sandholt Jensen P (2018) Fertility and early-life mortality: Evidence from smallpox vaccination in Sweden. J. Eur. Econom. Assoc. 16(2):487–521.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Alam SA, Wolff H (2016) Do pesticide sellers make farmers sick? Health, information, and adoption of technology in Bangladesh. J. Agricultural Resource Econom. 41(1):62–80.Google Scholar
• Anderson ML (2008) Multiple inference and gender differences in the effects of early intervention: A reevaluation of the Abecedarian, Perry Preschool, and Early Training projects. J. Amer. Statist. Assoc. 103(484):1481–1495.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Anderson ML, Dobkin C, Gorry D (2020) The effect of influenza vaccination for the elderly on hospitalization and mortality: An observational study with a regression discontinuity design. Ann. Internal Medicine 172(7):445–452.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Andersson O, Campos-Mercade P, Meier AN, Wengström E (2021) Anticipation of COVID-19 vaccines reduces willingness to socially distance. J. Health Econom. 80:102530.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Arni P, Dragone D, Goette L, Ziebarth NR (2021) Biased health perceptions and risky health behaviors—Theory and evidence. J. Health Econom. 76:102425.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Au TKF, Chan CK, Chan TK, Cheung MW, Ho JY, Ip GW (2008) Folkbiology meets microbiology: A study of conceptual and behavioral change. Cognitive Psych. 57(1):1–19.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Auld MC (2003) Choices, beliefs, and infectious disease dynamics. J. Health Econom. 22(3):361–377.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Baer RD, Weller SC, Pachter L, Trotter R, de Alba Garcia JG, Glazer M, Klein R, et al. (1999) Cross-cultural perspectives on the common cold: Data from five populations. Human Organ. 58(3):251–260.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Banerjee AV, Duflo E, Glennerster R, Kothari D (2010) Improving immunisation coverage in rural India: Clustered randomized controlled evaluation of immunisation campaigns with and without incentives. BMJ 340:c2220.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Baxter R, Lee J, Fireman B (2010) Evidence of bias in studies of influenza vaccine effectiveness in elderly patients. J. Infectious Diseases 201(2):186–189.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Belot M, James J, Nolen P (2016) Incentives and children’s dietary choices: A field experiment in primary schools. J. Health Econom. 50:213–229.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Belot M, James J, Spiteri J (2020) Facilitating healthy dietary habits: An experiment with a low income population. Eur. Econom. Rev. 129:103550.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Bjorvatn K, Cappelen AW, Sekei LH, Sørensen EØ, Tungodden B (2020) Teaching through television: Experimental evidence on entrepreneurship education in Tanzania. Management Sci. 66(6):2308–2325.Link, Google Scholar
• Blasco A, Jung OS, Lakhani KR, Menietti M (2019) Incentives for public goods inside organizations: Field experimental evidence. J. Econom. Behav. Organ. 160:214–229.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Bouckaert N, Gielen AC, Van Ourti T (2020) It runs in the family—Influenza vaccination and spillover effects. J. Health Econom. 74:102386.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Bradford WD, Mandich A (2015) Some state vaccination laws contribute to greater exemption rates and disease outbreaks in the United States. Health Affairs 34(8):1383–1390.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Bronchetti ET, Huffman DB, Magenheim E (2015) Attention, intentions, and follow-through in preventive health behavior: Field experimental evidence on flu vaccination. J. Econom. Behav. Organ. 116:270–291.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Bütikofer A, Salvanes KG (2020) Disease control and inequality reduction: Evidence from a tuberculosis testing and vaccination program. Rev. Econom. Stud. 87(5):2087–2125.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Bütikofer A, Skira MM (2018) Missing work is a pain—The effect of Cox-2 inhibitors on sickness absence and disability pension receipt. J. Human Resources 53(1):71–122.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Bütikofer A, Cronin CJ, Skira MM (2020) Employment effects of healthcare policy: Evidence from the 2007 FDA black box warning on antidepressants. J. Health Econom. 73:102348.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Campos-Mercade P, Meier AN, Schneider FH, Meier S, Pope D, Wengström E (2021) Monetary incentives increase COVID-19 vaccinations. Science 374(6569):879–882.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Carpenter CS, Lawler EC (2019) Direct and spillover effects of middle school vaccination requirements. Amer. Econom. J. Econom. Policy 11(1):95–125.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Carrera M, Lawler EC, White C (2021) Population mortality and laws encouraging influenza vaccination for hospital workers. Ann. Internal Medicine 174(4):444–452.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Carrera M, Royer H, Stehr M, Sydnor J (2020) The structure of health incentives: Evidence from a field experiment. Management Sci. 66(5):1890–1908.Link, Google Scholar
• Castro S, Englmaier F, Guadalupe M (2022) Fostering psychological safety in teams: Evidence from an RCT. Preprint, submitted July 3, http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4141538.Google Scholar
• Cawley J (2010) The economics of childhood obesity. Health Affairs 29(3):364–371.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Cawley J, Ruhm CJ (2011) The economics of risky health behaviors. Pauly MV, Mcguire TG, Barros PP, eds. Handbook of Health Economics, vol. 2 (Elsevier, Amsterdam), 95–199.Google Scholar
• CDC (2022) Promoting vaccination in the workplace. Accessed August 16, 2022, https://archive.cdc.gov/#/details?url=https://www.cdc.gov/flu/business/promoting-vaccines-workplace.htm.Google Scholar
• CDC (2024a) Flu disease burden: Past seasons. Accessed December 15, 2024, https://www.cdc.gov/flu-burden/php/data-vis/past-seasons.html.Google Scholar
• CDC (2024b) FluVaxView interactive! Accessed December 15, 2024, https://www.cdc.gov/fluvaxview/interactive/index.html.Google Scholar
• CDC (2024c) Preliminary estimated flu disease burden 2023–2024 flu season. Accessed December 15, 2024, https://www.cdc.gov/flu-burden/php/data-vis/2023-2024.html.Google Scholar
• Chadi A, Homolka K (2023) Under (peer) pressure: Experimental evidence on team size and task performance. Managerial Decision Econom. 44(7):3769–3786.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Chan TY, Li J, Pierce L (2014) Compensation and peer effects in competing sales teams. Management Sci. 60(8):1965–1984.Link, Google Scholar
• Chang LV (2018) Information, education, and health behaviors: Evidence from the MMR vaccine autism controversy. Health Econom. 27(7):1043–1062.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Chen F, Toxvaerd F (2014) The economics of vaccination. J. Theoret. Biol. 363:105–117.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Cornelissen T, Dustmann C, Schönberg U (2017) Peer effects in the workplace. Amer. Econom. Rev. 107(2):425–456.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Czibor E, Jimenez‐Gomez D, List JA (2019) The dozen things experimental economists should do (more of). Southern Econom. J. 86(2):371–432.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Dai H, Saccardo S, Han MA, Roh L, Raja N, Vangala S, Modi H, Pandya S, Sloyan M, Croymans DM (2021) Behavioural nudges increase COVID-19 vaccinations. Nature 597(7876):404–409.Crossref, Google Scholar
• De Paola M, Scoppa V, Pupo V (2014) Absenteeism in the Italian public sector: The effects of changes in sick leave policy. J. Labor Econom. 32(2):337–360.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Direccion Nacional Epidemiologica (2018) Influenza Actualización Epidemiológica SE 47,2017–SE 44 2018, Ministerio de Salud Publica del Ecuador. Accessed December 31, 2018, https://www.salud.gob.ec/actualizacion-epidemiologica-2018-influenza.Google Scholar
• Duflo E, Dupas P, Ginn T, Barasa GM, Baraza M, Pouliquen V, Sharma V (2019) HIV prevention among youth: A randomized controlled trial of voluntary counseling and testing for HIV and male condom distribution in rural Kenya. PLoS One 14(7):e0219535.Crossref, Google Scholar
• ECDC (2024) Survey report on national seasonal influenza vaccination recommendations and coverage rates in EU/EEA countries. Accessed December 15, 2024, https://www.ecdc.europa.eu/en/publications-data/survey-report-national-seasonal-influenza-vaccination-recommendations.Google Scholar
• Einav L, Finkelstein A, Ryan SP, Schrimpf P, Cullen MR (2013) Selection on moral hazard in health insurance. Amer. Econom. Rev. 103(1):178–219.Crossref, Google Scholar
• ENEMDU (2017) Encuesta Nacional de Empleo, Desempleo y Subempleo. Accessed January 2, 2019, https://www.ecuadorencifras.gob.ec/estadisticas-laborales-enemdu.Google Scholar
• ENSANUT (2012) Encuesta Nacional de Salud y Nutrición de Ecuador. Accessed January 2, 2019, https://www.ecuadorencifras.gob.ec/salud-salud-reproductiva-y-nutricion.Google Scholar
• Falk A, Ichino A (2006) Clean evidence on peer effects. J. Labor Econom. 24(1):39–57.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Freedman S, Sacks D, Simon K, Wing C (2022) Direct and indirect effects of vaccines: Evidence from COVID-19. NBER Working Paper No. 30550, National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, MA.Google Scholar
• Gandhi A, Larkin I, McGarry B, Wen K, Yu H, Berry S, Mor V, Syme M, White E (2024) The health and employment effects of employer vaccination mandates. NBER Working Paper No. 33072, National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, MA.Google Scholar
• Geoffard PY, Philipson T (1997) Disease eradication: Private versus public vaccination. Amer. Econom. Rev. 87(1):222–230.Google Scholar
• Girma S, Paton D (2024a) COVID-19 vaccines as a condition of employment: Impact on uptake, staffing, and mortality in elderly care homes. Management Sci. 70(5):2882–2899.Link, Google Scholar
• Girma S, Paton D (2024b) Using double-debiased machine learning to estimate the impact of Covid-19 vaccination on mortality and staff absences in elderly care homes. Eur. Econom. Rev. 170:104882.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Giulietti C, Vlassopoulos M, Zenou Y (2023) When reality bites: Local deaths and vaccine take-up. Eur. Econom. Rev. 156:104463.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Godinho CA, Yardley L, Marcu A, Mowbray F, Beard E, Michie S (2016) Increasing the intent to receive a pandemic influenza vaccination: Testing the impact of theory-based messages. Preventive Medicine 89:104–111.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Gubler T, Larkin I, Pierce L (2018) Doing well by making well: The impact of corporate wellness programs on employee productivity. Management Sci. 64(11):4967–4987.Link, Google Scholar
• Handel B, Kolstad J (2017) Wearable technologies and health behaviors: New data and new methods to understand population health. Amer. Econom. Rev. 107(5):481–485.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Harrison GW, List JA (2004) Field experiments. J. Econom. Literature 42(4):1009–1055.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Helman CG (1978) “Feed a cold, starve a fever”—Folk models of infection in an English suburban community, and their relation to medical treatment. Culture Medicine Psychiatry 2(2):107–137.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Hoffmann M, Baggio M, Krawczyk MW (2023) Vaccination demand and acceptance: A literature review of key behavioural insights. Technical report, European Commission, Brussels.Google Scholar
• Jacobson M, Chang TY, Shah M, Pramanik R, Shah SB (2022) Can financial incentives and other nudges increase COVID-19 vaccinations among the vaccine hesitant? A randomized trial. Vaccine 40(43):6235–6242.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Jefferson T, Rivetti A, Di Pietrantonj C, Demicheli V (2018) Vaccines for preventing influenza in healthy adults. Cochrane Database Systematic Rev. 2018(2):CD004879.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Jeon SH, Pohl RV (2019) Medical innovation, education, and labor market outcomes of cancer patients. J. Health Econom. 68:102228.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Jones D, Molitor D, Reif J (2019) What do workplace wellness programs do? Evidence from the Illinois workplace wellness study. Quart. J. Econom. 134(4):1747–1791.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Just DR, Price J (2013) Using incentives to encourage healthy eating in children. J. Human Resources 48(4):855–872.Google Scholar
• Kampkötter P, Marggraf K (2015) Do employees reciprocate to intra-firm trainings? An analysis of absenteeism and turnover rates. Internat. J. Human Resource Management 26(22):2888–2907.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Karaivanov A, Kim D, Lu SE, Shigeoka H (2022) COVID-19 vaccination mandates and vaccine uptake. Nature Human Behav. 6(12):1615–1624.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Karing A (2024) Social signaling and childhood immunization: A field experiment in Sierra Leone. Quart. J. Econom. 139(4):2083–2133.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Klick J, Stratmann T (2007) Diabetes treatments and moral hazard. J. Law Econom. 50(3):519–538.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Lawler EC (2017) Effectiveness of vaccination recommendations versus mandates: Evidence from the hepatitis A vaccine. J. Health Econom. 52:45–62.Crossref, Google Scholar
• List JA (2020) Non est disputandum de generalizability? A glimpse into the external validity trial. NBER Working Paper No. 27535, National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, MA.Google Scholar
• List JA, Momeni F (2021) When corporate social responsibility backfires: Evidence from a natural field experiment. Management Sci. 67(1):8–21.Link, Google Scholar
• List JA, Samek AS (2015) The behavioralist as nutritionist: Leveraging behavioral economics to improve child food choice and consumption. J. Health Econom. 39:135–146.Crossref, Google Scholar
• List JA, Metcalfe RD, Price MK, Rundhammer F (2017) Harnessing policy complementarities to conserve energy: Evidence from a natural field experiment. NBER Working Paper No. 23355, National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, MA.Google Scholar
• List JA, Rodemeier M, Roy S, Sun GK (2023) Judging nudging: Understanding the welfare effects of nudges versus taxes. NBER Working Paper No. 31152, National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, MA.Google Scholar
• Loeb M, Russell ML, Moss L, Fonseca K, Fox J, Earn DJ, Aoki F, et al. (2010) Effect of influenza vaccination of children on infection rates in Hutterite communities: A randomized trial. JAMA 303(10):943–950.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Manski CF (1993) Identification of endogenous social effects: The reflection problem. Rev. Econom. Stud. 60(3):531–542.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Margolis J, Hockenberry J, Grossman M, Chou SY (2014) Moral hazard and less invasive medical treatment for coronary artery disease: The case of cigarette smoking. NBER Working Paper No. 20373, National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, MA.Google Scholar
• Mas A, Moretti E (2009) Peers at work. Amer. Econom. Rev. 99(1):112–145.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Maurer J (2009) Who has a clue to preventing the flu? Unraveling supply and demand effects on the take-up of influenza vaccinations. J. Health Econom. 28(3):704–717.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Mereckiene J (2015) Seasonal influenza vaccination in Europe. Overview of vaccination recommendations and coverage rates in the EU Member States for the 2012–13 influenza season. ECDC Technical report, European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control, Solna, Sweden.Google Scholar
• Milkman KL, Beshears J, Choi JJ, Laibson D, Madrian BC (2011) Using implementation intentions prompts to enhance influenza vaccination rates. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 108(26):10415–10420.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Milkman KL, Ellis SF, Gromet DM, Jung Y, Luscher AS, Mobarak RS, Paxson MK, et al. (2024) Megastudy shows that reminders boost vaccination but adding free rides does not. Nature 631:179–188.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Milkman KL, Gandhi L, Patel MS, Graci HN, Gromet DM, Ho H, Kay JS, et al. (2022) A 680,000-person megastudy of nudges to encourage vaccination in pharmacies. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 119(6):e2115126119.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Milkman KL, Patel MS, Gandhi L, Graci HN, Gromet DM, Ho H, Kay JS, et al. (2021) A megastudy of text-based nudges encouraging patients to get vaccinated at an upcoming doctor’s appointment. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 118(20):e2101165118.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Moghtaderi A, Dor A (2021) Immunization and moral hazard: The HPV vaccine and uptake of cancer screening. Medical Care Res. Rev. 78(2):125–137.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Molinari NAM, Ortega-Sanchez IR, Messonnier ML, Thompson WW, Wortley PM, Weintraub E, Bridges CB (2007) The annual impact of seasonal influenza in the US: Measuring disease burden and costs. Vaccine 25(27):5086–5096.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Montiel Olea JL, Pflueger C (2013) A robust test for weak instruments. J. Bus. Econom. Statist. 31(3):358–369.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Nowalk MP, Lin CJ, Toback SL, Rousculp MD, Eby C, Raymund M, Zimmerman RK (2010) Improving influenza vaccination rates in the workplace: A randomized trial. Amer. J. Preventive Medicine 38(3):237–246.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Oster E (2018) Does disease cause vaccination? Disease outbreaks and vaccination response. J. Health Econom. 57:90–101.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Osterholm MT, Kelley NS, Sommer A, Belongia EA (2012) Efficacy and effectiveness of influenza vaccines: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Infectious Diseases 12(1):36–44.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Østerhus SF (2015) Influenza vaccination: A summary of Cochrane reviews. Eur. J. Clinical Microbiology Infectious Diseases 34(2):205–213.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Pichler S (2015) Sickness absence, moral hazard, and the business cycle. Health Econom. 24(6):692–710.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Rabb N, Swindal M, Glick D, Bowers J, Tomasulo A, Oyelami Z, Wilson KH, Yokum D (2022) Evidence from a statewide vaccination RCT shows the limits of nudges. Nature 604(7904):E1–E7.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Rao N, Kremer M, Mobius M, Rosenblat T (2017) Social networks and vaccination decisions. Working paper, Federal Reserve Bank of Boston, Boston.Google Scholar
• Reddinger JL, Levine D, Charness G (2022) Can targeted messages reduce COVID-19 vaccination hesitancy? A randomized trial. Preventive Medicine Rep. 29:101903.Google Scholar
• Riener G, Schneider S, Wagner V (2020) Addressing validity and generalizability concerns in field experiments. DICE Discussion Paper No. 345, Düsseldorf Institute for Competition Economics, Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Düsseldorf, Germany.Google Scholar
• Ropero AM (2011) Vaccination Against Seasonal and Pandemic Influenza (Pan American Health Organization, Buenos Aires).Google Scholar
• Rothman T (2017) The cost of influenza disease burden in U.S population. Internat. J. Econom. Management Sci. 6(4):1000443.Google Scholar
• Royer H, Stehr M, Sydnor J (2015) Incentives, commitments, and habit formation in exercise: Evidence from a field experiment with workers at a fortune-500 company. Amer. Econom. J. Appl. Econom. 7(3):51–84.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Saccardo S, Dai H, Han M, Vangala S, Hoo J, Fujimoto J (2024) Field tested: Assessing the transferability of behavioral interventions. Nature Human Behav. 8:878–890.Google Scholar
• Samad AH, Usul MH, Zakaria D, Ismail R, Tasset-Tisseau A, Baron-Papillon F, Follet A (2006) Workplace vaccination against influenza in Malaysia: Does the employer benefit? J. Occupational Health 48(1):1–10.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Sanson-Fisher RW, Bonevski B, Green LW, D’Este C (2007) Limitations of the randomized controlled trial in evaluating population-based health interventions. Amer. J. Preventive Medicine 33(2):155–161.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Sato R, Takasaki Y (2019a) Peer effects on vaccination behavior: Experimental evidence from rural Nigeria. Econom. Development Cultural Change 68(1):93–129.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Sato R, Takasaki Y (2019b) Psychic vs. economic barriers to vaccine take-up: Evidence from a field experiment in Nigeria. World Bank Econom. Rev. 33(3):622–642.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Schaller J, Schulkind L, Shapiro T (2019) Disease outbreaks, healthcare utilization, and on-time immunization in the first year of life. J. Health Econom. 67:102212.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Schmitz H, Wübker A (2011) What determines influenza vaccination take‐up of elderly Europeans? Health Econom. 20(11):1281–1297.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Schneider SO, Sutter M (2020) Higher order risk preferences: New experimental measures, determinants and field behavior. IZA Discussion Paper No. 13646, Institute of Labor Economics, Bonn, Germany.Google Scholar
• Schneider FH, Campos-Mercade P, Meier S, Pope D, Wengström E, Meier AN (2023) Financial incentives for vaccination do not have negative unintended consequences. Nature 613(7944):526–533.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Sigelman C, Maddock A, Epstein J, Carpenter W (1993) Age differences in understandings of disease causality: AIDS, colds, and cancer. Child Development 64(1):272–284.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Sutter M, Kocher MG, Glätzle-Rützler D, Trautmann ST (2013) Impatience and uncertainty: Experimental decisions predict adolescents’ field behavior. Amer. Econom. Rev. 103(1):510–531.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Talamàs E, Vohra R (2020) Free and perfectly safe but only partially effective vaccines can harm everyone. Games Econom. Behav. 122:277–289.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Tan TF, Netessine S (2019) When you work with a superman, will you also fly? An empirical study of the impact of coworkers on performance. Management Sci. 65(8):3495–3517.Link, Google Scholar
• Van den Berg GJ, Hofmann B, Uhlendorff A (2019) Evaluating vacancy referrals and the roles of sanctions and sickness absence. Econom. J. 129(624):3292–3322.Google Scholar
• Van Ourti T, Bouckaert N (2020) The Dutch influenza vaccination policy and medication use, outpatient visits, hospitalization and mortality at age 65. Eur. J. Public Health 30(2):275–280.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Ward CJ (2014) Influenza vaccination campaigns: Is an ounce of prevention worth a pound of cure? Amer. Econom. J. Appl. Econom. 6(1):38–72.Crossref, Google Scholar
• White C (2021) Measuring social and externality benefits of influenza vaccination. J. Human Resources 56(3):749–785.Crossref, Google Scholar
• WHO FluNet (2021) Global influenza programme. Accessed May 3, 2023, https://www.who.int/tools/flunet.Google Scholar
• Ziebarth NR, Karlsson M (2010) A natural experiment on sick pay cuts, sickness absence, and labor costs. J. Public Econom. 94(11–12):1108–1122.Crossref, Google Scholar