On the Supply of Autonomous Vehicles in Platforms

References

• Allon G, Van Mieghem JA (2010) Global dual sourcing: Tailored base-surge allocation to near-and offshore production. Management Sci. 56(1):110–124.Link, Google Scholar
• Amanihamedani A, Aouad A, Freund D (2023) Spatial matching under resource competition. Preprint, submitted June 22, https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4488342.Google Scholar
• Arslan AM, Agatz N, Kroon L, Zuidwijk R (2019) Crowdsourced delivery—A dynamic pickup and delivery problem with ad hoc drivers. Transportation Sci. 53(1):222–235.Link, Google Scholar
• Banerjee S, Freund D, Lykouris T (2022) Pricing and optimization in shared vehicle systems: An approximation framework. Oper. Res. 70(3):1783–1805.Google Scholar
• Banerjee S, Riquelme C, Johari R (2015) Pricing in ride-share platforms: A queueing-theoretic approach. Working paper, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY.Google Scholar
• Bellan R (2022) Inside Motional’s strategy to bring robotaxis to market. TechCrunch (October 13), https://techcrunch.com/2022/10/13/inside-motionals-strategy-to-bring-robotaxis-to-market/.Google Scholar
• Bellan R (2023a) Waymo’s self-driving cars will be available on Uber’s app starting in Phoenix. TechCrunch (May 23), https://techcrunch.com/2023/05/23/waymos-self-driving-cars-will-be-available-on-ubers-app-starting-in-phoenix/.Google Scholar
• Bellan R (2023b) Serve Robotics to deploy up to 2,000 sidewalk delivery bots on Uber Eats. TechCrunch (May 30), https://techcrunch.com/2023/05/30/serve-robotics-to-deploy-up-to-2000-sidewalk-delivery-bots-on-uber-eats/.Google Scholar
• Bellan R (2024) Lyft Partners with May Mobility, Mobileye to bring autonomous vehicles to the app. Accessed November 6, 2024, https://techcrunch.com/2024/11/06/lyft-partners-with-may-mobility-mobileye-to-bring-autonomous-vehicles-to-the-app/.Google Scholar
• Benjaafar S, Wang Z, Yang X (2025) The impact of automation on workers when workers are strategic: The case of ride-hailing. Manufacturing Service Oper. Management 27(5):1571–1586.Google Scholar
• Besbes O, Castro F, Lobel I (2022) Spatial capacity planning. Oper. Res. 70(2):1271–1291.Link, Google Scholar
• Bimpikis K, Candogan O, Saban D (2019) Spatial pricing in ride-sharing networks. Oper. Res. 67(3):744–769.Link, Google Scholar
• Braverman A, Dai JG, Liu X, Ying L (2019) Empty-car routing in ridesharing systems. Oper. Res. 67(5):1437–1452.Link, Google Scholar
• Cachon GP, Lariviere MA (2005) Supply chain coordination with revenue-sharing contracts: Strengths and limitations. Management Sci. 51(1):30–44.Link, Google Scholar
• Cachon GP, Daniels KM, Lobel R (2017) The role of surge pricing on a service platform with self-scheduling capacity. Manufacturing Service Oper. Management 19(3):368–384.Link, Google Scholar
• Capoot A, Piazza J (2023) Uber begins offering rides in self-driving Waymo cars. CNBC (October 26), https://www.cnbc.com/2023/10/26/uber-begins-offering-rides-in-self-driving-waymo-cars.html.Google Scholar
• Castillo JC, Knoepfle D, Weyl EG (2024) Matching and pricing in ride hailing: Wild goose chases and how to solve them. Management Sci. 71(5):4377–4395.Link, Google Scholar
• Castro F, Frazelle A (2024) Getting out of your own way: Introducing autonomous vehicles on a ride-hailing platform. Prod. Oper. Management 33(10):2014–2030.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Castro F, Gao J, Martin S (2022) Supply prioritization in hybrid marketplaces. Working paper, UCLA, Los Angeles.Google Scholar
• Chandar BK, Hortaçsu A, List JA, Muir I, Wooldridge JM (2019) Design and analysis of cluster-randomized field experiments in panel data settings. NBER Working Paper No. 26389, National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, MA.Google Scholar
• Chaturvedi A, Beil DR, Martínez-de Albéniz V (2014) Split-award auctions for supplier retention. Management Sci. 60(7):1719–1737.Link, Google Scholar
• Chaturvedi A, Katok E, Beil DR (2019) Split-award auctions: Insights from theory and experiments. Management Sci. 65(1):71–89.Link, Google Scholar
• Chen M, Hu M, Wang J (2022) Food delivery service and restaurant: Friend or foe? Management Sci. 68(9):6539–6551.Link, Google Scholar
• Costello KW, Hemphill RC (2014) Electric utilities’ ‘death spiral’: Hyperbole or reality? Electricity J. 27(10):7–26.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Dong J, Ibrahim R (2020) Managing supply in the on-demand economy: Flexible workers, full-time employees, or both? Oper. Res. 68(4):1238–1264.Link, Google Scholar
• Durango-Cohen EJ, Yano CA (2006) Supplier commitment and production decisions under a forecast-commitment contract. Management Sci. 52(1):54–67.Link, Google Scholar
• Edwards S (2024) Uber rideshare lawsuit. Forbes Advisor (May 28), https://www.forbes.com/advisor/legal/product-liability/uber-rideshare-lawsuit/.Google Scholar
• Erkoc M, Wu SD (2005) Managing high-tech capacity expansion via reservation contracts. Prod. Oper. Management 14(2):232–251.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Fannin R (2022) Where the billions spent on autonomous vehicles by U.S. and Chinese giants is heading. CNBC (May 21), https://www.cnbc.com/2022/05/21/why-the-first-autonomous-vehicles-winners-wont-be-in-your-driveway.html.Google Scholar
• Feldman P, Frazelle AE, Swinney R (2023) Managing relationships between restaurants and food delivery platforms: Conflict, contracts, and coordination. Management Sci. 69(2):812–823.Link, Google Scholar
• Freund D, van Ryzin G (2021) Pricing fast and slow: Limitations of dynamic pricing mechanisms in ride-hailing. Working paper, MIT, Cambridge, MA.Google Scholar
• Giacomin J (2023) How much will an autonomous car cost? A lot. Automotive News Europe (September 15), https://www.autonews.com/guest-columnist/how-much-will-autonomous-car-cost-lot/.Google Scholar
• Gurvich I, Lariviere M, Moreno A (2019) Operations in the on-demand economy: Staffing services with self-scheduling capacity. Hu M, ed. Sharing Economy (Springer, Cham, Switzerland), 249–278.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Hall JV, Horton JJ, Knoepfle DT (2021) Pricing in designed markets: The case of ride-sharing. Accessed January 29, 2021, https://www.tse-fr.eu/sites/default/files/TSE/documents/sem2021/horton.pdf.Google Scholar
• Hu M, Wang J, Zhang ZJ (2022) Implications of worker classification in on-demand economy. Working paper, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON.Google Scholar
• Huang H, Li Z, Xu H (2018) Wholesale price auctions for dual sourcing under supply risk. Decision Sci. 49(4):754–780.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Krishnan V, Iglesias R, Martin S, Wang S, Pattabhiraman V, van Ryzin G (2022) Solving the ride-sharing productivity paradox: Priority dispatch and optimal priority sets. INFORMS J. Appl. Anal. 52(5):433–445.Google Scholar
• Lariviere MA, Porteus EL (2001) Selling to the newsvendor: An analysis of price-only contracts. Manufacturing Service Oper. Management 3(4):293–305.Link, Google Scholar
• Lau A (2021) Self-driving cars FAQ: How far away is far away? Motor Trend (July 21), https://www.motortrend.com/news/self-driving-cars-faq-can-i-buy-one.Google Scholar
• Lian Z, van Ryzin G (2024) Capturing the benefits of autonomous vehicles in ride hailing: The role of market configuration. Management Sci. 71(7):5491–5510.Link, Google Scholar
• Liedtke M (2023) Two rival robotaxi services win approval to operate throughout San Francisco despite safety concerns. AP News (August 10), https://apnews.com/article/robotaxis-cruise-waymo-san-francisco-artificial-intelligence-98f0dab03984bd71685b92c2ac7aad0c#:~:text=SAN%20FRANCISCO%20(AP)%20%E2%80%94%20California,resulted%20in%20unmanned%20vehicles %20blocking.Google Scholar
• Liedtke M (2025) Uber teams up with Waymo to start selling driverless rides in Austin, Texas. AP News (March 4), https://apnews.com/article/uber-waymo-robotaxis-austin-texas-988aba46988e649be8cf59979587a8e5.Google Scholar
• Lipsey RG, Lancaster K (1956) The general theory of second best. Rev. Econom. Stud. 24(1):11–32.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Lobel I, Paes Leme R (2019) Dynamic contracting under positive commitment. Proc. AAAI Conf. Artificial Intelligence, vol. 33 (AAAI Press, Palo Alto, CA), 2101–2108.Google Scholar
• Lobel I, Martin S, Song H (2024) Employees, contractors, or hybrid: An operational perspective. Manufacturing Service Oper. Management 24(4):1306–1322.Link, Google Scholar
• Lowery L (2023) S&P predicts AVs need at least 10 more years to hit widespread adoption. Repairer Driven News (September 26), https://www.repairerdrivennews.com/2023/09/26/sp-predicts-avs-need-at-least-10-more-years-to-hit-widespread-adoption/.Google Scholar
• Ma H, Fang F, Parkes DC (2020) Spatio-temporal pricing for ridesharing platforms. ACM SIGecom Exchanges 18(2):53–57.Crossref, Google Scholar
• MarketsandMarkets™ (2024) Robotic taxi market—Size, share, and forecasts. Accessed May 8, 2024, https://www.marketsandmarkets.com/ResearchInsight/size-and-share-of-robo-taxi-market.asp.Google Scholar
• Maskin E, Tirole J (1999) Unforeseen contingencies and incomplete contracts. Rev. Econom. Stud. 66(1):83–114.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Mickle T, Lu Y, Isaac M (2023a) ‘This experience may feel futuristic’: Three rides in Waymo robot taxis. The New York Times (August 21), https://www.nytimes.com/2023/08/21/technology/waymo-driverless-cars-san-francisco.html.Google Scholar
• Mickle T, Metz C, Lu Y (2023b) G.M.’s cruise moved fast in the driverless race. It got ugly. The New York Times (November 3), https://www.nytimes.com/2023/11/03/technology/cruise-general-motors-self-driving-cars.html.Google Scholar
• Moreno J (2021) Waymo CEO says tesla is not a competitor, gives estimated cost of autonomous vehicles. Forbes (January 22), https://www.forbes.com/sites/johanmoreno/2021/01/22/waymo-ceo-says-tesla-is-not-a-competitor-gives-estimated-cost-of-autonomous-vehicles/.Google Scholar
• Mullaney T (2023) Where Uber’s climate and autonomous driving goals will meet in the future. CNBC (August 24), https://www.cnbc.com/2023/08/24/where-ubers-climate-and-autonomous-driving-goals-meet-in-the-future.html.Google Scholar
• Muller J (2023) Robotaxis hit the accelerator in growing list of cities nationwide. Axios (August 29), https://www.axios.com/2023/08/29/cities-testing-self-driving-driverless-taxis-robotaxi-waymo.Google Scholar
• New York City Department of Transportation Mobility (2018) Report, New York City: Mobility report. New York. Accessed September 29, 2025, https://www.nyc.gov/html/dot/downloads/pdf/mobility-report-2018-print.pdf.Google Scholar
• New York City Taxi and Limousine Commission (2024) TLC trip record data. Accessed September 29, 2025, https://www.nyc.gov/site/tlc/about/tlc-trip-record-data.page.Google Scholar
• Nikzad A (2017) Thickness and competition in ride-sharing markets. Working paper, USC, Los Angeles.Google Scholar
• Papadimitriou C (2001) Algorithms, games, and the internet. Proc. Annual ACM Symposium Theory Computing (STOC) (Association for Computing Machinery, New York), 749–753.Google Scholar
• Parrott JA, Reich M (2018) An earnings standard for New York City’s app-based drivers: Economic analysis and policy assessment. The New School: Center for New York City Affairs, New York. Accessed September 29, 2025, https://www.centernyc.org/an-earnings-standard.Google Scholar
• Rogerson WP (1992) Contractual solutions to the hold-up problem. Rev. Econom. Stud. 59(4):777–793.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Schmitz PW (2001) The hold-up problem and incomplete contracts: A survey of recent topics in contract theory. Bull. Econom. Res. 53(1):1–17.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Severance CA (2011) A practical, affordable (and least business risk) plan to achieve “80% clean electricity” by 2035. Electricity J. 24(6):8–26.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Shetty S (2022) Uber’s self-driving cars are a key to its path to profitability. CNBC (January 28), https://www.cnbc.com/2020/01/28/ubers-self-driving-cars-are-a-key-to-its-path-to-profitability.html.Google Scholar
• Siddiq A, Taylor TA (2022) Ride-hailing platforms: Competition and autonomous vehicles. Manufacturing Service Oper. Management 24(3):1511–1528.Link, Google Scholar
• Solomon B (2016) Stealth startup Juno will take on uber by treating drivers better. Forbes (February 16), https://www.forbes.com/sites/briansolomon/2016/02/16/stealth-startup-juno-will-take-on-uber-by-treating-drivers-better/.Google Scholar
• Song J-S, Xiao L, Zhang H, Zipkin P (2017) Optimal policies for a dual-sourcing inventory problem with endogenous stochastic lead times. Oper. Res. 65(2):379–395.Link, Google Scholar
• Soper T (2022) The road ahead for autonomous vehicles: Aurora CEO Chris Urmson on the future of cars and trucks. GeekWire (October 29), https://www.geekwire.com/2022/the-road-ahead-for-autonomous-vehicles-aurora-ceo-chris-urmson-on-the-future-of-cars-and-trucks/.Google Scholar
• Spengler JJ (1950) Vertical integration and antitrust policy. J. Political Econom. 58(4):347–352.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Taqla J (2022) Lyft’s future is autonomous and driverless vehicles, according to co-founder. Tech Times (June 8), https://www.techtimes.com/articles/276467/20220608/lyfts-future-autonomous-driverless-vehicles-according-co-founder.htm.Google Scholar
• Taylor TA, Plambeck EL (2007) Simple relational contracts to motivate capacity investment: Price only vs. price and quantity. Manufacturing Service Oper. Management 9(1):94–113.Link, Google Scholar
• Tomlin B (2003) Capacity investments in supply chains: Sharing the gain rather than sharing the pain. Manufacturing Service Oper. Management 5(4):317–333.Link, Google Scholar
• Tucker S (2023) Average used car price held steady in June. Kelley Blue Book (July 14), https://www.kbb.com/car-news/average-used-car-price-held-steady-in-june/.Google Scholar
• Waymo (2024a) Waymo one open to all in Los Angeles. Accessed November 12, 2024, https://waymo.com/blog/2024/11/waymo-one-open-to-all-in-los-angeles.Google Scholar
• Waymo (2024b) Waymo and uber expand partnership to bring autonomous ride-hailing to Austin and Atlanta. Waymo Blog (September 13), https://waymo.com/blog/2024/09/waymo-and-uber-expand-partnership.Google Scholar
• Williamson OE (1985) The Economic Institutions of Capitalism (Free Press, New York).Google Scholar
• Xin L, Goldberg DA (2018) Asymptotic optimality of tailored base-surge policies in dual-sourcing inventory systems. Management Sci. 64(1):437–452.Link, Google Scholar