Misinformation and Disinformation in Modern Warfare
Published Online:18 Feb 2022https://doi.org/10.1287/opre.2021.2253
References
- Aljazeera (2017) Coalition says it hit Mosul site where civilians died. (March 26), https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2017/3/26/coalition-says-it-hit-mosul-site-where-civilians-died.Google Scholar
- (2009) Incremental policy generation for finite-horizon DEC-POMDPs. Gerevini A, Howe A, Cesta A, Refanidis I, eds. 19th Internat. Conf. Automated Planning Scheduling (AAAI Press, Thessaloniki, Greece), 2–9.Google Scholar
- Amnesty International (2017) At any cost: The civilian catastrophe in West Mosul, Iraq. (July 11), https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/campaigns/2017/07/at-any-cost-civilian-catastrophe-in-west-mosul-iraq/.Google Scholar
- (2017) Iraqi forces begin assault on Mosul’s Old City. New York Times (June 18), https://www.nytimes.com/2017/06/18/world/middleeast/iraq-mosul-islamic-state.html.Google Scholar
- (2010) An investigation into mathematical programming for finite horizon decentralized POMDPs. Artificial Intelligence 37:329–396.Google Scholar
- (2018) Maintaining Information Dominance in Complex Environments (Strategic Studies Institute and U.S. Army War College Press, Carlisle, PA).Google Scholar
- (2019) Five operational lessons from the Battle for Mosul. Military Rev. (January–February), https://www.armyupress.army.mil/Journals/Military-Review/English-Edition-Archives/Jan-Feb-2019/Arnold-Mosul/.Google Scholar
- (1998) Stalingrad (Viking, New York).Google Scholar
- (2009) Policy iteration for decentralized control of Markov decision processes. J. Artificial Intelligence Res. 34:89–132.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2002) The complexity of decentralized control of Markov decision processes. Math. Oper. Res. 27(4):819–840.Link, Google Scholar
- (2007) Choosing what to protect. J. Public Econom. Theory 9(4):563–587.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2008) Exact dynamic programming for decentralized POMDPs with lossless policy compression. Rintanen J, Nebel B, Beck JC, Hansen EA, eds. Proc. 18th Internat. Conf. Automated Planning Scheduling (AAAI Press, Sydney, Australia), 20–27.Google Scholar
- (2011) Limiting the spread of misinformation in social networks. Sadagopan S, Ramamritham K, Kumar A, Ravindra MP, eds. Proc. 20th Internat. Conf. World Wide Web (Association for Computing Machinery, New York), 665–674.Google Scholar
- (2008) Value-based observation compression for DEC-POMDPs. Padgham L, Parkes D, eds. Proc. 7th Internat. Joint Conf. Autonomous Agents Multiagent Systems (International Foundation for Autonomous Agents and Multiagent Systems, Richland, SC), 501–508.Google Scholar
- (2017) A lasting defeat: The campaign to destroy ISIS. Report, Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs, Harvard Kennedy School, Cambridge, MA.Google Scholar
- (2015) A leader-follower partially observed Markov game. Ann. Oper. Res. 235(1):103–128.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2006) Strategic information sharing in a supply chain. Eur. J. Oper. Res. 174:1567–1579.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (1996) Why bounded rationality? J. Econom. Literature 34(2):669–700.Google Scholar
- Department of the Army (1996) Information operations. Field Manual 100-6. Washington, DC.Google Scholar
- Department of the Army (2016) Deep operations. Army Techniques Publication No. 3-94.2, Washington, DC.Google Scholar
- Department of Defense (2016) Strategy for operations in the information environment. Washington, DC.Google Scholar
- (2009) Point-based incremental pruning heuristic for solving finite-horizon DEC-POMDPs. Decker KS, Sichman JS, eds. Proc. 8th Internat. Conf. Autonomous Agents Multiagent Systems (International Foundation for Autonomous Agents and Multiagent Systems, Richland, SC), 569–576.Google Scholar
- (2011) Toward error-bounded algorithms for infinite-horizon DEC-POMDPs. Tumer K, Yolum P, eds. Proc. 10th Internat. Conf Autonomous Agents Multiagent Systems (International Foundation for Autonomous Agents and Multiagent Systems, Richland, SC), 947–954.Google Scholar
- (2001) Freeing Mercury’s Wings: Improving Tactical Communications in Cities (The Rand Corporation, Santa Monica, CA).Google Scholar
- (2004) Approximate solutions for partially observable stochastic games with common payoffs. Jennings N, Tambe M, Sierra C, Sonenberg L, eds. Proc. 3rd Internat. Joint Conf. Autonomous Agents Multi Agent Systems (IEEE Computer Society, Washington, DC), 136–143.Google Scholar
- (2014) Business Data Communications and Networking, 12th ed. (Wiley, Hoboken, NJ).Google Scholar
- (2004) Zero-sum stochastic games with partial information. J. Optim. Theory Appl. 121(1):99–118.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (1992) Game Theory for Applied Economists, reprint edition (Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ).Google Scholar
- (2008) Competition adds complexity. Platt JC, Koller D, Singer Y, Roweis S, eds. Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems, vol. 20 (MIT Press, Cambridge, MA), 561–568.Google Scholar
- (2017) U.S. Army study finds flaws with military’s pivotal assault on Mosul. Wall Street J. (December 15), https://www.wsj.com/articles/u-s-army-study-finds-flaws-with-militarys-pivotal-assault-on-mosul-1513333800.Google Scholar
- (1982) The role of deception in decision theory. J. Conflict Resolution 26(1):139–156.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2004) Dynamic programming for partially observable stochastic games. Cohn AG, ed. Proc. 19th National Conf. Artificial Intelligence (AAAI Press, San Jose, CA), 709–715.Google Scholar
- (2001) Nash equilibria in partial-information games on Markov chains. Zhu JJ, ed. Proc. 40th IEEE Conf. Decision Control (IEEE, Piscataway, NJ), 2102–2107.Google Scholar
- Iraqi News (2017) Ministry: more than 3000 IS militants killed in western Mosul offensive. (May 8), https://www.iraqinews.com/iraq-war/interior-ministry-3000-militants-killed-since-start-western-mosul-offensive/.Google Scholar
- Joint Concept for Operating in the Information Environment (JCOIE) (2018) Washington, DC (July 25) https://www.jcs.mil/Portals/36/Documents/Doctrine/concepts/joint_concepts_jcoie.pdf?ver=2018-08-01-142119-830.Google Scholar
- (1990) On the value of information in a strategic conflict. Games Econom. Behav. 2:129–153.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2017) Iraqi forces battle toward heart of Mosul’s Old City. Reuters (June 23), https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-iraq-mosul-idUSKBN19E1IL.Google Scholar
- (2017) The Virtual Weapon and International Order (Yale University Press, New Haven, CT).Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2009) Dynamic programming approximations for partially observable stochastic games. Guesgen HW, Chad Lane H, eds. Proc. 22nd Internat. FLAIRS Conf. (AAAI Press, Sanibel Island, FL), 547–552.Google Scholar
- (2010) A note on the evaluation of information in zero-sum repeated games. J. Math. Econom. 46:393–399.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2009) Allocation of cost savings in a three-level supply chain with demand information sharing: A cooperate-game approach. Oper. Res. 57(1):200–213.Link, Google Scholar
- (2012) Misinformation and its correction: Continued influence and successful debiasing. Psych. Sci. Public Interest 13(3):106–131.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2013) Misinformation, disinformation, and violent conflict: from Iraq and the “War on Terror” to future threats to peace. Amer. Psychologist 68(7):487–501.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2002) Information sharing in a supply chain with horizontal competition. Management Sci. 48(9):1196–1212.Link, Google Scholar
- (2013) Markov game analysis for attack-defense of power networks under possible misinformation. IEEE Trans. Power Systems 28(2):1676–1686.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (1978) Bounded rationality, ambiguity, and the engineering of choice. Bell J. Econom. 9(2):587–608.Crossref, Google Scholar
- Memoryless Channel. Encyclopedia of Mathematics. https://encyclopediaofmath.org/wiki/Memoryless_channel.Google Scholar
- (2016) A survey of game theoretic approaches to modelling decision-making in information warfare scenarios. Future Internet 8(3).Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2010) Evaluating information in zero-sum games with incomplete information on both sides. Math. Oper. Res. 35:851–863.Link, Google Scholar
- (2017) Iraqi forces fight their way into the narrow streets of Mosul’s historic center. Washington Post (June 18), https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2017/live-updates/battle-for-mosul/inside-the-battle-for-mosul/iraqi-forces-fight-their-way-into-the-narrow-streets-of-mosuls-historic-center/.Google Scholar
- Mosul Study Group (2017) What the battle for Mosul teaches the force. No. 17-24 U Report, US Army’s Mosul Study Group, Army University Press, Kansas.Google Scholar
- (2012) Security games on social networks. AAAI Fall Symp. Social Networks Social Contagion (AAAI, Arlington, VA).Google Scholar
- (2012) Decentralized POMDPs. Wiering M, Otterlo MV, eds. Reinforcement Learning: State of the Art, vol. 12 (Springer, Berlin), 471–503.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2013) Approximate solutions for factored Dec-POMDPs with many agents. Ito T, Jonker C, eds. Proc. 2013 Internat. Conf. Autonomous Agents Multi-agent Systems (International Foundation for Autonomous Agents and Multiagent Systems, Richland, SC), 563–570.Google Scholar
- (2002) Foundations of Stochastic Inventory Theory (Stanford University Press, Stanford, CA).Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2003) The complexity of multiagent systems: The price of silence. Rosenschein JS, Wooldridge M, Sandholm T, Yokoo M, eds. Proc. 2nd Internat. Joint Conf. Autonomous Agents Multi-Agent Systems (Association for Computing Machinery, New York), 1102–1103.Google Scholar
- (2014) Zero-sum stochastic games with partial information and average payoff. J. Optim. Theory Appl. 160(1):344–354.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2011) Scaling up optimal heuristic search in DEC-POMDPs via incremental expansion. Walsh T, ed. 22nd Internat. Joint Conf. Artificial Intelligence (AAAI Press, Barcelona, Spain), 2027–2032.Google Scholar
- (2017) The city is the battlefield of the future. Wall Street J. (July 19), https://www.wsj.com/articles/the-city-is-the-battlefield-of-the-future-1500500905.Google Scholar
- (2020a) The city is not neutral: Why urban warfare is so hard. Modern War Inst. (March 4), https://mwi.usma.edu/city-not-neutral-urban-warfare-hard/.Google Scholar
- (2020b) Personal communications, 2018–2020, most recently on March 10, 2020.Google Scholar
- U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff (2010) Department of Defense Dictionary of Military and Associated Terms, Joint Publication 1-02. Washington, DC (as amended through February 15, 2016).Google Scholar
- U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff (2012) Information Operations, Joint Publication 3-13. Washington, DC (incorporating change 1, November 20, 2014).Google Scholar
- (2017) Theater land operations: Relevant observations and lessons from the combined joint land force experience in Iraq. Military Rev. Online Exclusive (June), https://www.armyupress.army.mil/Portals/7/online-publications/documents/Volesky-Theater-Land-Operations.pdf.Google Scholar
- (2009) Combat Modeling (Springer, New York).Crossref, Google Scholar
- (1980) Application of Jensen’s inequality to adaptive suboptimal design. J. Optim. Theory Appl. 32:89–99.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2016) Structure in the value function of two-player zero-sum games of incomplete information. Kaminka GA, Fox M, Bouquet P, Hullermeier E, Dignum V, eds. Proc. 22nd Eur. Conf. Artificial Intelligence (IOS Press, Amsterdam), 1628–1629.Google Scholar
- (2010) Partially observable Markov decision processes: A geometric technique and analysis. Oper. Res. 58:214–228.Link, Google Scholar
- (2016) Misinformation in online social networks: Detect them all with a limited budget. ACM Trans. Inform. Systems 34(3):18.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2019) Detection and resolution of rumours in social media: A survey. ACM Comput. Surveys 51(2):1–36.Crossref, Google Scholar

