Balancing Cost and Service: Charging-Rate Optimization for Electric Vehicle Battery Swapping

References

• AMPLE (2025) Ample is coming to Tokyo: A battery swapping infrastructure to electrify Japan’s capital. Accessed April 2, 2026, https://ample.com/2025/03/19/ample-is-coming-to-tokyo-a-battery-swapping-infrastructure-to-electrify-japans-capital/.Google Scholar
• Avci B, Girotra K, Netessine S (2015) Electric vehicles with a battery switching station: Adoption and environmental impact. Management Sci. 61(4):772–794.Link, Google Scholar
• BBC (2025) A new fully charged EV battery in five minutes: Are China’s swap stations the future of electric cars? Accessed August 2, 2025, https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20250506-are-chinas-swap-stations-the-future-of-electric-cars.Google Scholar
• Business India (2023) Sun Mobility’s swapping points: A compelling choice. Accessed October 9, 2025, https://businessindia.co/magazine/sun-mobilitys-swapping-points-a-compelling-choice.Google Scholar
• CATL (2024) CATL launches battery swap ecosystem with nearly 100 partners. Accessed April 2, 2026, https://www.catl.com/en/news/6342.html.Google Scholar
• Chen L, He L, Zhou Y (2024) An exponential cone programming approach for managing electric vehicle charging. Oper. Res. 72(5):2215–2240.Link, Google Scholar
• CNBC (2025) Chinese battery giant and Tesla supplier CATL is expanding globally: Here’s why it matters. Accessed October 9, 2025, https://www.cnbc.com/2025/06/27/china-battery-giant-catl-is-expanding-globally-heres-why-it-matters.html.Google Scholar
• He L, Ma G, Qi W, Wang X (2021) Charging an electric vehicle-sharing fleet. Manufacturing Service Oper. Management 23(2):471–487.Abstract, Google Scholar
• He L, Mak HY, Rong Y, Shen ZJM (2017) Service region design for urban electric vehicle sharing systems. Manufacturing Service Oper. Management 19(2):309–327.Link, Google Scholar
• Jiang DR, Powell WB (2016) Practicality of nested risk measures for dynamic electric vehicle charging. Preprint, submitted May 10, https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.1605.02848.Google Scholar
• Jiang ZZ, Li K, Tang CS, Yang SA (2024) Offering electric vehicle battery swapping as a service: Electric vehicle manufacturers or battery producers? Naval Res. Logist., ePub ahead of print March 28, https://doi.org/10.1002/nav.70065.Google Scholar
• Jordan WC, Graves SC (1995) Principles on the benefits of manufacturing process flexibility. Management Sci. 41(4):577–594.Link, Google Scholar
• Lin C (2024) How one Chinese EV company made battery swapping work. Harvard Bus. Rev. (May 28), https://hbr.org/2024/05/how-one-chinese-ev-company-made-battery-swapping-work.Google Scholar
• Long DZ, Sim M, Zhou M (2023) Robust satisficing. Oper. Res. 71(1):61–82.Link, Google Scholar
• Mak HY, Rong Y, Shen ZJM (2013) Infrastructure planning for electric vehicles with battery swapping. Management Sci. 59(7):1557–1575.Link, Google Scholar
• Mohajerin Esfahani P, Kuhn D (2018) Data-driven distributionally robust optimization using the wasserstein metric: Performance guarantees and tractable reformulations. Math. Programming 171(1):115–166.Crossref, Google Scholar
• NIO (2021) NIO announces NIO power 2025 battery swap station deployment plan. Accessed April 2, 2026, https://www.nio.com/news/nio-announces-nio-power-2025-battery-swap-station-deployment-plan.Google Scholar
• Qi W, Sha M, Li S (2022) When shared autonomous electric vehicles meet microgrids: Citywide energy-mobility orchestration. Manufacturing Service Oper. Management 24(5):2389–2406.Link, Google Scholar
• Qi W, Zhang Y, Zhang N (2023) Scaling up electric-vehicle battery swapping services in cities: A joint location and repairable-inventory model. Management Sci. 69(11):6855–6875.Link, Google Scholar
• Sarker MR, Pandžić H, Ortega-Vazquez MA (2014) Optimal operation and services scheduling for an electric vehicle battery swapping station. IEEE Trans. Power Systems 30(2):901–910.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Schneider F, Thonemann UW, Klabjan D (2018) Optimization of battery charging and purchasing at electric vehicle battery swap stations. Transportation Sci. 52(5):1211–1234.Link, Google Scholar
• Sun B, Tan X, Tsang DHK (2017) Optimal charging operation of battery swapping and charging stations with QoS guarantee. IEEE Trans. Smart Grid 9(5):4689–4701.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Sun B, Sun X, Tsang DH, Whitt W (2019) Optimal battery purchasing and charging strategy at electric vehicle battery swap stations. Eur. J. Oper. Res. 279(2):524–539.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Tan X, Qu G, Sun B, Li N, Tsang DHK (2017) Optimal scheduling of battery charging station serving electric vehicles based on battery swapping. IEEE Trans. Smart Grid 10(2):1372–1384.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Tang C, Yang A (2024) The rebirth of EV battery-swapping services and why their time is now. Forbes (April 15), https://www.forbes.com/sites/lbsbusinessstrategyreview/2024/04/15/the-rebirth-of-ev-battery-swapping-services-and-why-their-time-is-now/.Google Scholar
• Widrick RS, Nurre SG, Robbins MJ (2018) Optimal policies for the management of an electric vehicle battery swap station. Transportation Sci. 52(1):59–79.Link, Google Scholar
• Worley O, Klabjan D (2011) Optimization of battery charging and purchasing at electric vehicle battery swap stations. Proc. 2011 IEEE Vehicle Power Propulsion Conf. (IEEE, Piscataway, NJ), 1–4.Google Scholar
• Wu OQ, Yücel Ş, Zhou Y (2022) Smart charging of electric vehicles: An innovative business model for utility firms. Manufacturing Service Oper. Management 24(5):2481–2499.Link, Google Scholar
• Yu JJ, Tang CS, Li MK, Shen ZJM (2022) Coordinating installation of electric vehicle charging stations between governments and automakers. Production Oper. Management 31(2):681–696.Crossref, Google Scholar