Forced Ranking Systems and Gender Gaps in Job Tenure

References

• Aarons GA, Sommerfeld DH, Willging CE (2011) The soft underbelly of system change: The role of leadership and organizational climate in turnover during statewide behavioral health reform. Psych. Services 8(4):269–281.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Abraham L (2023) The gender gap in performance reviews. J. Econom. Behav. Organ. 214:459–492.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Abraham M, Burbano V (2022) Congruence between leadership gender and organizational claims affects the gender composition of the applicant pool: Field experimental evidence. Organ. Sci. 33(1):393–413.Link, Google Scholar
• Acharya VV, Baghai RP, Subramanian KV (2014) Wrongful discharge laws and innovation. Rev. Financial Stud. 27(1):301–346.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Adams RB, Kirchmaier T (2016) Women on boards in finance and STEM industries. Amer. Econom. Rev. 106(5):277–281.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Baker AC, Larcker DF, Wang CCY (2022) How much should we trust staggered difference-in-differences estimates? J. Financial Econom. 144(2):370–395.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Bass BC (2015) Preparing for parenthood?: Gender, aspirations, and the reproduction of labor market inequality. Gender Soc. 29(3):362–385.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Berger J, Harbring C, Sliwka D (2013) Performance appraisals and the impact of forced distribution—An experimental investigation. Management Sci. 59(1):54–68.Link, Google Scholar
• Bertrand M (2018) Coase lecture - The glass ceiling. Economica 85(338):205–231.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Bertrand M, Goldin C, Katz LF (2010) Dynamics of the gender gap for young professionals in the financial and corporate sectors. Amer. Econom. J.: Appl. Econom. 2(3):228–255.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Bidwell MJ (2013) What happened to long-term employment? The role of worker power and environmental turbulence in explaining declines in worker tenure. Organ. Sci. 24(4):1061–1082.Link, Google Scholar
• Blau FD, Kahn LM (2017) The gender wage gap: Extent, trends, and explanations. J. Econom. Literature 55(3):789–865.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Bloomberg MB (2023) Why companies can’t quit Jack Welch’s much-hated employee-ranking system. New Hampshire Union Leader (January 29), https://www.unionleader.com/news/business/why-companies-cant-quit-jack-welchs-much-hated-employee-ranking-system.Google Scholar
• Blume BD, Baldwin TT, Rubin RS (2009) Reactions to different types of forced distribution performance evaluation systems. J. Bus. Psych. 24(1):77–91.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Blume BD, Rubin RS, Baldwin TT (2013) Who is attracted to an organisation using a forced distribution performance management system?: Forced distribution systems. Human Resource Management J. 23(4):360–378.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Bowen DE, Ostroff C (2004) Understanding HRM–firm performance linkages: The role of the “strength” of the HRM system. Acad. Management Rev. 29(2):203–221.Google Scholar
• Bureau of Labor Statistics (2022) Employee tenure in 2022. Report, U.S. Department of Labor, Washington, DC.Google Scholar
• Buser T, Niederle M, Oosterbeek H (2014) Gender, competitiveness, and career choices. Quart. J. Econom. 129(3):1409–1447.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Cahlíková J, Cingl L, Levely I (2020) How stress affects performance and competitiveness across gender. Management Sci. 66(8):3295–3310.Link, Google Scholar
• Cai X, Lu Y, Pan J, Zhong S (2019) Gender gap under pressure: Evidence from China’s national college entrance examination. Rev. Econom. Statist. 101(2):249–263.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Cardinaels E, Feichter C (2021) Forced rating systems from employee and supervisor perspectives. J. Accounting Res. 59(5):1573–1607.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Carlana M (2019) Implicit stereotypes: Evidence from teachers’ gender bias. Quart. J. Econom. 134(3):1163–1224.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Carlana M, Corno L (2021) Parents and peers: Gender stereotypes in the field of study. CEPR Discussion Paper No. 16582, CEPR Press, Paris, London.Google Scholar
• Carlana M, Fort M (2022) Hacking gender stereotypes: Girls’ participation in coding clubs. AEA Papers Proc. 112:583–587.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Carter G, Delahaye B (2005) Performance appraisal: Stressful for some. Davies D, Fisher G, Hughes R, eds. Engaging Multiple Contexts Management - Proc. 19th ANZAM Conf. (Australian and New Zealand Academy of Management, Canberra, Australia), 1–14.Google Scholar
• Chambers CR, Baker WE (2020) Robust systems of cooperation in the presence of rankings: How displaying prosocial contributions can offset the disruptive effects of performance rankings. Organ. Sci. 31(2):287–307.Link, Google Scholar
• Chan J, Wang J (2018) Hiring preferences in online labor markets: Evidence of a female hiring bias. Management Sci. 64(7):2973–2994.Link, Google Scholar
• Chen D, Gao H, Ma Y (2021a) Human capital-driven acquisition: Evidence from the inevitable disclosure doctrine. Management Sci. 67(8):4643–4664.Link, Google Scholar
• Chen T, Tan Y, Wang J, Zeng C (2021b) The unintended consequence of land finance: Evidence from corporate tax avoidance. Management Sci. 68(11):8319–8342.Link, Google Scholar
• Cook A, Glass C (2014) Above the glass ceiling: When are women and racial/ethnic minorities promoted to CEO?: Research notes and commentaries. Strategic Management J. 35(7):1080–1089.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Deloitte (2014) It’s official: Forced ranking is dead. CIO J. (June 10), https://deloitte.wsj.com/cio/its-official-forced-ranking-is-dead-1402372957.Google Scholar
• Derks B, Van Laar C, Ellemers N (2016) The queen bee phenomenon: Why women leaders distance themselves from junior women. Leadership Quart. 27(3):456–469.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Dwivedi P, Misangyi VF, Joshi A (2021) “Burnt by the spotlight”: How leadership endorsements impact the longevity of female leaders. J. Appl. Psych. 106(12):1885–1906.Crossref, Google Scholar
• El Haddad R, Karkoulian S, Nehme R (2019) The impact of 360 feedback appraisal system on organizational justice and sustainability: The mediating roles of gender and managerial levels. Inernat. J. Organ. Anal. 27(3):712–728.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Ellul A, Pagano M, Scognamiglio A (2022) Careers in finance. Preprint, submitted February 5, https://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3983617.Google Scholar
• Fay D, Tissington P (2004) Safety and risks: Errors and accidents in different occupations. Spielberger C, ed. Encyclopedia of Applied Psychology (Academic Press, New York), 299–307.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Fietze S, Holst E, Tobsch V (2011) Germany’s next top manager: Does personality explain the gender career gap? Management Rev. 22(3):240–273.Google Scholar
• Flory JA, Leibbrandt A, List JA (2015) Do competitive workplaces deter female workers? A large-scale natural field experiment on job entry decisions. Rev. Econom. Stud. 82(1):122–155.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Gallen Y (2023) Motherhood and the gender productivity gap. J. Eur. Econom. Assoc. 22(3):1055–1096.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Gao H, Zhang J (2019) SOX Section 404 and corporate innovation. J. Financial Quant. Anal. 54(2):759–787.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Gao H, Lin Y, Ma Y (2016) Sex discrimination and female top managers: Evidence from China. J Bus. Ethics 138(4):683–702.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Gayle GL, Golan L, Miller RA (2012) Gender differences in executive compensation and job mobility. J. Labor Econom. 30(4):829–872.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Ge C, Huang KW, Png IPL (2016) Engineer/scientist careers: Patents, online profiles, and misclassification bias: Online career profiles and misclassification. Strategic Management J. 37(1):232–253.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Gill D, Kissová Z, Lee J, Prowse V (2019) First-place loving and last-place loathing: How rank in the distribution of performance affects effort provision. Management Sci. 65(2):494–507.Link, Google Scholar
• Giumetti GW, Schroeder AN, Switzer FS (2015) Forced distribution rating systems: When does “rank and yank” lead to adverse impact? J. Appl. Psych. 100(1):180–193.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Gneezy U, Niederle M, Rustichini A (2003) Performance in competitive environments: Gender differences. Quart. J. Econom. 118(3):1049–1074.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Goldin C (2014) A grand gender convergence: Its last chapter. Amer. Econom. Rev. 104(4):1091–1119.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Groysberg B, Healy P, Lin E (2022) Determinants of gender differences in change in pay among job-switching executives. ILR Rev. 75(1):168–199.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Guralnik O, Rozmarin E, So A (2004) Forced distribution: Is it right for you? Human Resource Development Quart. 15(3):339–345.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Hind P, Baruch Y (1997) Gender variations in perceptions of performance appraisal. Women Management Rev. 12(7):276–289.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Hora S, Lemoine GJ, Xu N, Shalley CE (2021) Unlocking and closing the gender gap in creative performance: A multilevel model. J. Organ. Behav. 42(3):297–312.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Imbens GW, Wooldridge JM (2009) Recent developments in the econometrics of program evaluation. J. Econom. Literature 47(1):5–86.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Ismail HN, Gali N (2017) Relationships among performance appraisal satisfaction, work–family conflict and job stress. J. Management Organ. 23(3):356–372.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Jepsen DM, Rodwell J (2012) Female perceptions of organizational justice: Female perceptions of organizational justice. Gender Work Organ. 19(6):723–740.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Johnson H, Payares-Montoya D, Mejia M (2023) College gender gap starts early and extends across races. Public Policy Inst. California (May 23), https://www.ppic.org/blog/college-gender-gap-starts-early-and-extends-across-races/.Google Scholar
• Jones JL, Davis WD, Thomas CH (2017) Is competition engaging? Examining the interactive effects of goal orientation and competitive work environment on engagement. Human Resource Management 56(3):389–405.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Jung S, Choe C, Oaxaca RL (2018) Gender wage gaps and risky vs. secure employment: An experimental analysis. Labour Econom. 52:112–121.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Kessler JB, Low C, Sullivan CD (2019) Incentivized Resume Rating: Eliciting Employer Preferences without Deception. American Economic Review. 109(11):3713–3744.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Klasa S, Ortiz-Molina H, Serfling M, Srinivasan S (2018) Protection of trade secrets and capital structure decisions. J. Financial Econom. 128(2):266–286.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Kuhn PJ, Villeval MC (2011) Do women prefer a co-operative work environment? Preprint, submitted September 25, https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.1933356.Google Scholar
• Lavy V (2013) Gender differences in market competitiveness in a real workplace: Evidence from performance-based pay tournaments among teachers. Econom. J. 123(569):540–573.Google Scholar
• Lawler EE (1994) Performance management: The next generation. Compensation & Benefits Rev. 26(3):16–19.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Leung MD, Koppman S (2018) Taking a pass: How proportional prejudice and decisions not to hire reproduce gender segregation. Amer. J. Sociol. 124(3):762–813.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Li Q, Lourie B, Nekrasov A, Shevlin T (2022) Employee turnover and firm performance: Large-sample archival evidence. Management Sci. 68(8):5667–5683.Link, Google Scholar
• Li K, Mai F, Shen R, Yan X (2021) Measuring corporate culture using machine learning. Rev. Financial Stud. 34(7):3265–3315.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Loberg L, Nüesch S, Foege JN (2021) Forced distribution rating systems and team collaboration. J. Econom. Behav. Organ. 188:18–35.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Loprest PJ (1992) Gender differences in wage growth and job mobility. Amer. Econom. Rev. 82(2):526–532.Google Scholar
• Lu Y, Zhong S (2023) Contactless real-time heart rate predicts the performance of elite athletes: Evidence from Tokyo 2020 Olympic archery competition. Psych. Sci. 34(3):384–393.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Markowsky E, Beblo M (2022) When do we observe a gender gap in competition entry? A meta-analysis of the experimental literature. J. Econom. Behav. Organ. 198:139–163.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Mezzanotti F (2021) Roadblock to innovation: The role of patent litigation in corporate R&D. Management Sci. 67(12):7362–7390.Link, Google Scholar
• Miller AR, Petrie R, Segal C (2019) Does workplace competition increase labor supply? Evidence from a field experiment. Preprint, submitted November 20, https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3489530.Google Scholar
• Moon SH, Scullen SE, Latham GP (2016) Precarious curve ahead: The effects of forced distribution rating systems on job performance. Human Resource Management Rev. 26(2):166–179.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Müller J, Schwieren C (2012) Can personality explain what is underlying women’s unwillingness to compete? J. Econom. Psych. 33(3):448–460.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Munasinghe L, Reif T, Henriques A (2008) Gender gap in wage returns to job tenure and experience. Labour Econom. 15(6):1296–1316.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Niederle M, Vesterlund L (2007) Do women shy away from competition? Do men compete too much? Quart. J. Econom. 122(3):1067–1101.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Niederle M, Vesterlund L (2011) Gender and competition. Annual Rev. Econom. 3(1):601–630.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Nisen M (2015) Why GE had to kill its annual performance reviews after more than three decades. Quartz (July 20), https://qz.com/428813/ge-performance-review-strategy-shift.Google Scholar
• Ors E, Palomino F, Peyrache E (2013) Performance gender gap: Does competition matter? J. Labor Econom. 31(3):443–499.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Paserman MD (2023) Gender differences in performance in competitive environments? Evidence from professional tennis players. J. Econom. Behav. Organ. 212:590–609.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Phillips SD, Little BR, Goodine LA (1997) Reconsidering gender and public administration: Five steps beyond conventional research. Canadian Public Admin. 40(4):563–581.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Pierce L, Snow DC, McAfee A (2015) Cleaning house: The impact of information technology monitoring on employee theft and productivity. Management Sci. 61(10):2299–2319.Link, Google Scholar
• Powell S (2007) Spotlight on Dick Grote. Human Resource Management Internat. Digest 15(2):42–45.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Rammstedt B, John OP (2007) Measuring personality in one minute or less: A 10-item short version of the Big Five Inventory in English and German. J. Res. Personality 41(1):203–212.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Reeves R, Buckner E, Smith E (2021) The unreported gender gap in high school graduation rates. Brookings (January 12), https://www.brookings.edu/articles/the-unreported-gender-gap-in-high-school-graduation-rates/.Google Scholar
• Reuben E, Sapienza P, Zingales L (2024) Overconfidence and preferences for competition. J. Finance 79(2):1087–1121.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Rodriguez S, Horwitz J (2022) Meta managers are urged to identify, push out low performers. Wall Street J. (July 11), https://www.wsj.com/tech/meta-managers-are-urged-to-identify-push-out-low-performers-11657576630.Google Scholar
• Rosenberg M (1965) Rosenberg self-esteem scale. J. Religion Health.Google Scholar
• Scullen SE, Bergey PK, Aiman-Smith L (2005) Forced distribution rating systems and the improvement of workforce potential: A baseline simulation. Personality Psych. 58(1):1–32.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Shin D, Garmendia A, Ali M, Konrad AM, Madinabeitia-Olabarria D (2020) HRM systems and employee affective commitment: The role of employee gender. Gender Management 35(2):189–210.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Shrauger JS, Schohn M (1995) Self-confidence in college students: Conceptualization, measurement, and behavioral implications. Assessment 2(3):255–278.Google Scholar
• Shurchkov O (2012) Under pressure: Gender differences in output quality and quantity under competition and time constraints. J. Eur. Econom. Assoc. 10(5):1189–1213.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Stamarski CS, Son Hing LS (2015) Gender inequalities in the workplace: The effects of organizational structures, processes, practices, and decision makers’ sexism. Frontiers Psych. 10(5):1189–1213.Google Scholar
• Sun L, Abraham S (2021) Estimating dynamic treatment effects in event studies with heterogeneous treatment effects. J. Econom. 225(2):175–199.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Swisher K (2013) “Because Marissa said so” — Yahoos bristle at Mayer’s QPR ranking system and “silent layoffs.” AllThingsD (November 8), https://allthingsd.com/20131108/because-marissa-said-so-yahoos-bristle-at-mayers-new-qpr-ranking-system-and-silent-layoffs/.Google Scholar
• Tzini K, Jain K (2018) Unethical behavior under relative performance evaluation: Evidence and remedy. Human Resource Management 57(6):1399–1413.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Viswav P (2013) Microsoft abolishes stack ranking employee evaluation process. MSPowerUser (November 12), https://mspoweruser.com/microsoft-abolishes-stack-ranking-system-employee-evaluation-process/.Google Scholar
• Zeng M (2016) What alternative performance appraisal methods have companies used to replace forced rankings? Cornell Univ. Library eCommons (April 1), https://ecommons.cornell.edu/items/e0768f09-e7b3-4759-9523-82e300de3340.Google Scholar
• Zhang J, Liu Y (2010) Organizational climate and its effects on organizational variables: An empirical study. Internat. J. Psych. Stud. 2(2):189–201.Google Scholar