Risk Mitigation in Virtual Organizations
Published Online:1 Dec 1999https://doi.org/10.1287/orsc.10.6.704
References
- Technology diffusion and organizational learning: The case of business computing. Organ. Sci. (1992) 3 1 19 Link, Google Scholar
- Reshaping an industry: Lockheed Martin's survival story. Harvard Bus. Rev. (1997) 75 83 94 Google Scholar
- The emerging flexible organization: Perspectives from Silicon Valley. California Management Rev. (1992) 34 Summer 33 52 Crossref, Google Scholar
- The new millennium workplace: Seven changes that will challenge managers—And workers. Futurist (1996) 30 14 18 Google Scholar
- Interorganizational information sharing systems. MIS Quart. (1982) 93 105 Crossref, Google Scholar
- Comparing the structure and stability of network ties using the social support questionnaire and the social network list. J. Soc. Personal Relationships (1997) 14 123 132 Crossref, Google Scholar
- Configurations of interorganizational relationships: A comparison between U.S. and Japanese automakers. Management Sci. (1995) 41 1471 1492 Link, Google Scholar
- Electronic markets and virtual value chains on the information superhighway. Sloan Management Rev. (1995) 36 62 72 Google Scholar
- , Roloff M. E. , Miller G. R. Communicating under uncertainty. Interpersonal Processes: New Dimensions in Communications Research (1987) (Sage, Newbury Park, CA) 39 62 Google Scholar
- Language and Social Knowledge: Uncertainty in Interpersonal Relations (1982) (Edward Arnold, London) Google Scholar
- Making the virtual office a reality. Sales and Marketing Management, SMT Supplement (1996) June 18 22 Google Scholar
- The core as solution to exclusionary networks. Soc. Networks (1992) 14 231 244 Crossref, Google Scholar
- Network exchange as a cooperative game. Rationality and Soc. (1997) 9 37 65 Crossref, Google Scholar
- The virtual organization. Futurist (1994) 28 9 14 Google Scholar
- Conflict cooperation and trust in three power systems. Behavioral Sci. (1976) 21 499 514 Crossref, Google Scholar
- A social network perspective on human resources management. Res. Personnel and Human Resources Management (1995) 13 39 79 Google Scholar
- Types of patterned variation in bureaucratic adaptations to organizational stress. Soc. Quart. (1971) 41 39 46 Google Scholar
- Matrix management in hospitals: Testing theories of matrix structure and development. Admin. Sci. Quart. (1989) 34 49 368 Crossref, Google Scholar
- Business Week. The virtual corporation. (1993) February 8 98 103 Google Scholar
- Business Week The futurists who fathered the ideas. (1993) February 8 103 Google Scholar
- , March J. , Wissinger-Baylon R. Efficiency in a garbage can: Implications for crisis management. Ambiguity and Command: Organizational Perspectives on Military Decision Making (1986) (Pitman, Marshfield, MA) Google Scholar
- IS redraws competitive boundaries. Harvard Bus. Rev. (1985) 63 134 142 Google Scholar
- When is virtual virtuous? Organizing for innovation. Harvard Bus. Rev. (1996) 74 January/February 65 73 Google Scholar
- Chevron Chevron signs accord with Azerbaijan to hunt for oil in Caspian Sea. (1997) . http://www.chevron.com/newsvs/pressrel/1997/97-08-01.html Google Scholar
- Where Asia goes from here. Fortune (1997) 24 November 96 104 Google Scholar
- The platform organization: Recombining strategies, structures, and surprises. Organ. Sci. (1996) 7 103 118 Link, Google Scholar
- Information technology and industrial cooperation. J. Management Inform. Systems (1992) 9 9 28 Crossref, Google Scholar
- Exchange and power in networks of interorganizational relations. Soc. Quart. (1977) 18 62 82 Crossref, Google Scholar
- , Marsden P. V. , Lin N. Network structures from an exchange perspective. Social Structure and Network Analysis (1982) (Sage, Beverly Hills, CA) 177 218 Google Scholar
- Two approaches to social structure: Exchange theory and network analysis. Ann. Rev. Soc. (1992) 18 109 127 Crossref, Google Scholar
- Power in exchange networks: A powerdependence formulation. Soc. Networks (1992) 14 245 Crossref, Google Scholar
- The soft-side challenge of the virtual corporation. Human Resource Planning (1995) 18 41 42 Google Scholar
- Toward a model of organizations as interpretation systems. Acad. Management Rev. (1984) 9 284 295 Crossref, Google Scholar
- In the Wake of the Exxon Valdez (1990) (Sierra Club, San Francisco) Google Scholar
- The Virtual Corporation: Structuring and Revitalizing the Corporation for the 21st Century (1992) (Edward Burlingame Books/Harper Business Press, New York) Google Scholar
- Matrix (1977) (Addison-Wesley, Boston, MA) Google Scholar
- , Jensen R. Human performance aspects of aircraft accidents. Aviation Psychology (1989) (Gower Press, Aldershot, England) Google Scholar
- Human System Responses to Disaster: An Inventory of Sociological Findings (1986) (Springer-Verlag, London) Crossref, Google Scholar
- Resource based view of strategic alliance formation: Strategic and social effects in entrepreneurial firms. Organ. Sci. (1996) 7 136 150 Link, Google Scholar
- Energy Information Administration Privatization and Globalization of Energy Markets (1997) (U.S. Department of Energy, Washington, D.C.) . Also at http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/pgem/endnotes.html. Google Scholar
- Fire Protection Publications The Incident Command System (1983) (Oklahoma State University Press, Stillwater, Oklahoma) Google Scholar
- , Wiener E. , Nagel D. Group interaction and flight crew performance. Human Factors in Aviation (1988) (Academic Press, New York) 189 228 Crossref, Google Scholar
- ABB and Ford: Creating value through cooperation. Sloan Management Rev. (1993) 65 72 Google Scholar
- Trust still counts in a virtual world. Forbes (1996) . (December 2). Also at http://www.forbes.com/asap/120296/html/francis fukuyama.htm. , (December 8, 1997) Google Scholar
- Electronic communication and changing organizational forms. Organ. Sci. (1995) 6 387 349 Link, Google Scholar
- Competing with Flexible Lateral Organizations (1994) (Addison-Wesley, Boston, MA) Google Scholar
- The impact of computer-based support on the processes and outcomes of group decision-making. MIS Quart. (1988) 12 277 296 Crossref, Google Scholar
- Gilson R. D. , Garland D. J. , Koonce J. M. Situation Awareness in Complex Systems (1994) (Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University Press, Daytona Beach, FL) Crossref, Google Scholar
- Agile Competitors and Virtual Organizations (1995) (Van Nostrand Rheinhold Press, New York) Google Scholar
- , Grabowski M. R. , Wallace W. A. Decision support and organizational forms in a high velocity environment: Responses to catastrophic oil spills. Advances in Expert Systems for Management (1997) 2 (JAI Press, Greenwich, CT) Google Scholar
- Human and organizational error in largescale systems. IEEE Trans. Systems, Man, and Cybernetics (1996) 26 2 16 Crossref, Google Scholar
- Risk mitigation in large scale systems: Lessons from high reliability organizations. California Management Rev. (1997) 39 152 162 Crossref, Google Scholar
- Understanding the rationale of strategic technology partnerships: Interorganizational modes of cooperation and sectoral differences. Strategic Management J. (1993) 14 371 385 Crossref, Google Scholar
- Trust and the virtual organization. Harvard Bus. Rev. (1995) 73 40 50 Google Scholar
- We were always reorganizing: Some crisis management implications of the Exxon Valdez oil spill. Indust. Crisis Quart. (1992) 6 197 217 Crossref, Google Scholar
- Power and trust: Critical factors in the adoption and use of electronic data interchange. Organ. Sci. (1997) 8 23 42 Link, Google Scholar
- Trust: The connecting link between organizational theory and philosophical ethics. Acad. Management Rev. (1995) 20 379 403 Crossref, Google Scholar
- The Oiling of ICS. Proc. 1993 Oil Spill Conf. (1993) American Petroleum Institute Washington, D.C 25 30 Crossref, Google Scholar
- On strategic networks. Strategic Management J. (1988) 9 31 41 Crossref, Google Scholar
- Creating competitive advantage with interorganizational systems. MIS Quart. (1988) 12 153 166 Crossref, Google Scholar
- Designing lateral organizations: An analysis of the benefits, costs, and enablers of nonhierarchical organizational forms. Decision Sci. (1997) 28 1 25 Crossref, Google Scholar
- Mental health and the interpersonal environment: A reexamination of some effects of social structure on mental health. Amer. Soc. Rev. (1983) 48 188 198 Crossref, Google Scholar
- Out of the Channel: The Exxon Valdez Oil Spill in Prince William Sound (1991) (Harper Collins, New York) Google Scholar
- The virtual company. Wall Street Journal (1994) November 14 Google Scholar
- The company we don't keep. Wall Street Journal (1996) November 18 Google Scholar
- Information partnerships: Shared data, shared scale. Harvard Bus. Rev. (1990) 68 114 120 Google Scholar
- Trust in Organizations (1995) (Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA) Google Scholar
- , Sills David L. , Wolf C. P. , Shelanski Vivien . On the design and management of nearly error free organizational control systems. Accident at Three Mile Island: The Human Dimension (1982) (Westview Press, Boulder, CO) 185 200 Google Scholar
- , Mayntz R. , Hughes T. P. The United States air traffic system: Increasing reliability in the midst of rapid growth. The Development of Large Technical Systems (1988) (Westview Press, Boulder, CO) Google Scholar
- Working in theory but not in practice: Theoretical challenges in high reliability organizations. J. Public Admin. Res. Theory (1991) 1 19 47 Google Scholar
- Trust as social reality. Soc. Forces (1985) 63 967 985 Crossref, Google Scholar
- Life, stress and health: Stressors and resources. Amer. Soc. Rev. (1989) 54 382 399 Crossref, Google Scholar
- The role of information technology in organizational design. J. Management Inform. Systems (1994) 10 9 23 Crossref, Google Scholar
- Ambiguity and Command: Organizational Perspectives on Military Decision Making (1986) (Pitman, Marshfield, MA) Google Scholar
- Learning from samples of one or fewer. Organ. Sci. (1991) 2 1 14 Link, Google Scholar
- Power relations in exchange networks. Amer. Soc. Rev. (1988) 53 220 236 Crossref, Google Scholar
- Chevron's Caspian commitment: Helping to build interdependence in near Asia. Proc. 5th Kazakhstan Internat. Oil and Gas Exposition (1997) . Almaty, Kazakhstan, 2 October 1997. Also at http://www.chevron.com/newsvs/speeches/1997/97-10-02.html. Google Scholar
- An integrative model of organizational trust. Acad. Management Rev. (1995) 20 709 734 Crossref, Google Scholar
- Affect and cognition based trust as foundations for interpersonal cooperation in organizations. Acad. Management J. (1995) 38 24 59 Crossref, Google Scholar
- The Legacy of Chernobyl (1990) (W. W. Norton, New York) Google Scholar
- Organizations: New concepts for new forms. California Management Rev. (1986) 28 62 73 Crossref, Google Scholar
- Cases of failure in network organizations. California Management Rev. (1992) 74 53 72 Crossref, Google Scholar
- , Jablin F. M. , Putnam L. L. Emergence of communication networks. Handbook of Organizational Communications (1998) 2nd ed. (Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA) Google Scholar
- , Jablin F. M. , Putnam L. L. , Roberts K. H. , Porter L. W. Emergent communication networks. Handbook of Organizational Communication (1987) (Sage, Newbury Park, CA) 304 342 Google Scholar
- Averting Catastrophe: Strategies for Regulating Risky Technologies (1986) (University of California Press, Berkeley, CA) Google Scholar
- National Research Council Review of the Interagency Oil Pollution Research and Technology Plan (1993) (National Academy Press, Washington, D.C.) Google Scholar
- National Research Council Understanding Risk: Informing Decisions in a Democratic Society (1996) (National Academy Press, Washington, D.C.) Google Scholar
- National Transportation Safety Board Safety recommendations concerning the American Airlines 757 accident near Cali. Colombia, December 20, 1995 (1996) . U.S. Department of Transportation, National Transportation Safety Board, October 1, Washington, D.C. Also at http://www.ntsb.gov/Pressrel/961001.htm. Google Scholar
- , Hekscher C. , Donnellon A. The virtual organization: Bureaucracy, technology, and the implosion of control. The Post-Bureaucratic Organization: New Perspectives in Organizational Change (1994) (Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA) 108 128 Google Scholar
- Networks and Organizations: Structure, Form and Action (1992) (Harvard Business School Press, Boston, MA) Google Scholar
- Flightdeck Performance: The Human Factor (1990) (Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa) Google Scholar
- Methodological issues in social support and social network research. Soc. Sci. Medicine (1988) 26 863 873 Crossref, Google Scholar
- Situation awareness: Its role in flight crew decision making. (1997) . NASA Ames Research Center Report. Also at http://olias.arc.nasa.gov/publications/OSU Orasanu/AvPs-SA.txt.html. Google Scholar
- Improvising organizational transformation over time: A situated perspective. Inform. Systems Res. (1996) 7 March 63 92 Link, Google Scholar
- The ties that bind: Organizational and class bases of stability in a corporate interlock network. Amer. Soc. Rev. (1986) 51 781 796 Crossref, Google Scholar
- A typology of virtual organizations: An empirical study. Proc. Assoc. Inform. Systems 1997 Conf. (1997) August 1997 Indianapolis, Indiana 15 17 Google Scholar
- Transforming the Crisis Prone Organization (1992) (Jossey-Bass, San Francisco) Google Scholar
- Complex Organizations: A Critical Essay (1979) 2nd ed. (Random House, New York) Google Scholar
- Complex Organizations: A critical essay (1986) 3rd ed. (Random House, New York) Google Scholar
- Normal Accidents: Living with High Risk Technologies (1984) (Basic Books, New York) Google Scholar
- The External Control of Organizations (1978) (Harper Row, New York) Google Scholar
- Physicians On-Line (1998) . http://www.southeastflorida.com/physiciansonline.html(March) and, Physicians On-Line. http://www.medfinder.com (February) Google Scholar
- Virtual companies reconsidered. Tech. Anal. Strategic Management (1993) 5 413 420 Crossref, Google Scholar
- , Cummins L. L. , Staw B. M. Neither market nor hierarchy: Network forms of organization. Res. Organ. Behavior (1990) 12 295 336 Google Scholar
- Cooperate to Compete (1996) (Van Nostrand Rheinhold, New York) Google Scholar
- Exploiting the virtual value chain. Harvard Bus. Rev. (1995) 73 75 85 Google Scholar
- Ablaze: The Story of the Heroes and Victims of Chernobyl (1993) (Random House, New York) Google Scholar
- Developmental processes of cooperative interorganizational relationships. Acad. Management Rev. (1994) 19 90 118 Crossref, Google Scholar
- Some characteristics of high reliability organizations. Organ. Sci. (1990) 1 160 177 Link, Google Scholar
- , Clegg S. R. , Hardy C. , Nord W. R. Organizations, technology, and structuring. Handbook of Organization Studies (1996) (Sage, London) 409 423 Google Scholar
- Decision dynamics in two high reliability military organizations. Management Sci. (1994) 40 614 624 Link, Google Scholar
- The self designing high reliability organization: Aircraft carrier flight operations at sea. Naval War College Rev. (1987) 40 76 90 Google Scholar
- The challenge of fifth generation R and D. Res. Tech. Management (1996) 39 33 41 Crossref, Google Scholar
- The Limits of Safety: Organizations, Accidents, and Nuclear Weapons (1993) (Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ) Google Scholar
- Wanted: A good network theory of organization. Admin. Sci. Quart. (1995) 40 345 349 Crossref, Google Scholar
- Situation awareness: A critical but ill-defined phenomenon. Internat. J. Aviation Psych. (1991) 1 45 57 Crossref, Google Scholar
- Organizational Culture and Leadership (1992) 2nd ed. (Jossey-Bass, San Francisco) Google Scholar
- Three cultures of management: The key to organizational learning. Sloan Management Rev. (1996) 9 20 Google Scholar
- , Roberts K. H. The analysis of high reliability organizations. New Challenges to Understanding Organizations (1993) (Macmillan, New York) 33 54 Google Scholar
- The Fifth Discipline: The Art and Practice of the Learning Organization (1990) (Doubleday, New York) Google Scholar
- Bhopal: Anatomy of a Disaster (1986) (Basic Books, New York) Google Scholar
- Exclusion and power: A test of four theories of power in exchange networks. Amer. Soc. Rev. (1993) 58 801 818 Crossref, Google Scholar
- SmartBridge (1997) . http://www.hokie.bs1.prc.com/maritech/dsc94-44.htm. SmartBridge Google Scholar
- SmartBridge: Navigation safety. Sea Tech. (1997) November 5 8 Google Scholar
- Mental models: Concepts for humancomputer interaction research. Internat. J. Man-Machine Stud. (1993) 38 587 605 Crossref, Google Scholar
- , Quarantelli E. The structural patterns of four types of organizations in disasters. Disasters: Theory and Research (1978) (Sage, Beverly Hills, CA) 87 104 Google Scholar
- A Computer-based interactive system for group decision-making. IEEE Trans. Systems, Man. Cybernetics (1981) 11 544 552 Crossref, Google Scholar
- The formation and incorporation of virtual entrepreneur groups. Entrepreneurship: Theory and Practice (1995) 19 35 52 Crossref, Google Scholar
- Concluding remarks. J. Math. Soc. (1996) 21 197 199 Crossref, Google Scholar
- SWIFT Society for Worldwide Interbank Financial Telecommunications (SWIFT) Annual Report (1996) . SWIFT, La Hulpe, Belgium Google Scholar
- SWIFT (1998) March . http://www.SWIFT.com Google Scholar
- Why Things Bite Back: Technology and the Revenge of Unintended Consequences (1996) (Alfred A. Knopf, New York) Google Scholar
- Networks: Between markets and hierarchies. Strategic Management J. (1986) 7 37 51 Crossref, Google Scholar
- Individual, group and organizational decision making in technological emergencies. Indust. Crisis Quart. (1988) 2 109 138 Crossref, Google Scholar
- Man Made Disasters (1978) (Wyckham, London) Google Scholar
- U.S. Fire Administration Four Firefighters Die in Seattle Warehouse Fire, Seattle, Washington (1995) . Report 077, U.S. Fire Administration Technical report Series, Washington, D.C Google Scholar
- Social structure and competition in interfirm networks: The paradox of embeddedness. Admin. Sci. Quart. (1997) 42 35 67 Crossref, Google Scholar
- The Challenger Launch Decision: Risky Technology, Culture, and Deviance at NASA (1996) (University of Chicago Press, Chicago) Google Scholar
- Virtual Enterprises (1997) December . http://www.teco.uni-karlsruhe.de/IT-VISION/ntpvirtual/Enterprises.html Google Scholar
- Toward the flexible form: How to remain vital in hypercompetitive environments. Organ. Sci. (1996) 7 359 374 Link, Google Scholar
- , Wasserman S. , Galaskiewicz J. Statistical models for social support networks. Advances in Social Network Analysis: Research in the Social and Behavioral Sciences (1994) (Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA) 53 78 Crossref, Google Scholar
- Educational organizations as loosely coupled systems. Admin. Sci. Quart. (1976) 21 1 19 Crossref, Google Scholar
- The Social Psychology of Organizing (1979) 2nd ed. (Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA) Google Scholar
- Organization culture as a source of high reliability. California Management Rev. (1987) 29 116 136 Crossref, Google Scholar
- The vulnerable system: An analysis of the Tenerife air disaster. J. Management (1990) 16 571 593 Crossref, Google Scholar
- The collapse of sense making in organizations: The Mann Gulch disaster. Admin. Sci. Quart. (1993) 38 628 652 Crossref, Google Scholar
- Drop your tools: An allegory for organizational studies. Admin. Sci. Quart. (1996) 41 301 313 Crossref, Google Scholar
- Improvisation as a mindset for organizational analysis. Organ. Sci. (1998) 9 Link, Google Scholar
- Collective mind and organizational reliability: The case of flight operations on an aircraft carrier deck. Admin. Sci. Quart. (1993) 38 57 381 Google Scholar
- Tradeoffs: Imperatives of Choice in a High Tech World (1982) (The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, MD) Google Scholar
- Searching for Safety (1988) (Transactions Publishers, New Brunswick, NJ) Google Scholar
- Redrawing the portrait of a learning organization: Inside Knight Ridder, Inc.. Acad. Management Executive (1996) 10 7 20 Google Scholar
- Network connections and the distribution of power in exchange networks. Amer. J. Soc. (1988) 93 833 851 Crossref, Google Scholar
- Does trust matter? Exploring the role of interorganizational and interpersonal trust on performance. Organ. Sci. . Forthcoming Google Scholar
- Catching the wave: Alertness, responsiveness and market influence in global electronic networks. Management Sci. (1997) 43 1493 1509 Link, Google Scholar

