Why Managers Do Not Seek Voice from Employees: The Importance of Managers’ Personal Control and Long-Term Orientation
Published Online:4 Apr 2019https://doi.org/10.1287/orsc.2018.1273
References
- (2014) Best practice recommendations for designing and implementing experimental vignette methodology studies. Organ. Res. Methods 17(4):351–371.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2017) Why being a middle manager is so exhausting. Accessed August 2, 2018, https://hbr.org/2017/03/why-being-a-middle-manager-is-so-exhausting.Google Scholar
- (1991) Self-regulation for managerial effectiveness: The role of active feedback seeking. Acad. Management J. 34(2):251–280.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2016) To seek or not to seek: Is that the only question? Recent developments in feedback-seeking literature. Annu. Rev. Organ. Psych. Organ. Behav. 3(1):213–239.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2009) Speaking up and speaking out: The leadership dynamics of voice in organizations. Greenberg J, Edwards M, eds. Voice and Silence in Organizations (Emerald, Bingley, UK), 175–202.Google Scholar
- (1998) Out on a limb: The role of context and impression management in selling gender-equity issues. Admin. Sci. Quart. 43(1):23–57.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (1993) Autonomy as a moderator of the relationships between the big five personality dimensions and job performance. J. Appl. Psych. 78(1):111–118.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2006) A measure of long-term orientation: Development and validation. J. Acad. Marketing Sci. 34(3):456–467.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (1989) People as sculptors vs. sculpture: The roles of personality and personal control in organizations. Arthur MB, Hall DT, Lawrence BS, eds. Handbook of Career Theory (Cambridge University Press, New York), 232–251.Google Scholar
- (2012) Differentiating the effects of status and power: A justice perspective. J. Personality Soc. Psych. 102(5):994–1014.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2016) The bright side of being prosocial at work, and the dark side, too: A review and agenda for research on other-oriented motives, behavior, and impact in organizations. Acad. Management Ann. 10(1):599–670.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2004) The other side of the story: Reexamining prevailing assumptions about organizational citizenship behavior. Human Resources Management Rev. 14(2):229–246.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (1981) Psychological Reactance: A Theory of Freedom and Control (Academic Press, New York).Google Scholar
- (2004) Perceived control as an antidote to the negative effects of layoffs on survivors’ organizational commitment and job performance. Admin. Sci. Quart. 49(1):76–100.Google Scholar
- (2012) The risks and rewards of speaking up: Managerial responses to employee voice. Acad. Management J. 55(4):851–875.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2013) Speaking up vs. being heard: The disagreement around and outcomes of employee voice. Organ. Sci. 24(1):22–38.Link, Google Scholar
- (2007) The stress of leadership. Accessed September 2, 2018, https://www.ccl.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/StressofLeadership.pdf.Google Scholar
- (2018) In search of missing time: A review of the study of time in leadership research. Leadership Quart. 29(1):165–178.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2001a) Validation of a new general self-efficacy scale. Organ. Res. Methods 4(1):62–83.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2001b) Relationship orientation as a moderator of the effects of social power. J. Personality Soc. Psych. 80(2):173–187.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (1989) Referent cognitions and task decision autonomy: Beyond equity theory. J. Appl. Psych. 74(2):293–299.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2005) The antecedents of middle managers’ strategic contribution: The case of a professional bureaucracy. J. Management Stud. 42(7):1325–1356.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2007) Job control and occupational health: The moderating role of national R&D activity. J. Organ. Behav. 28(1):1–19.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2012) Does power corrupt or enable? When and why power facilitates self-interested behavior. J. Appl. Psych. 97(3):681–689.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2017) Dirty data: The effects of screening respondents who provide low-quality data in survey research. J. Bus. Psych. 33(5):559–577.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2007) Leadership behavior and employee voice: Is the door really open? Acad. Management J. 50(4):869–884.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2007) Why employees are afraid to speak. Harvard Bus. Rev. 85(5):23–25.Google Scholar
- (2011) Implicit voice theories: Taken-for-granted rules of self-censorship at work. Acad. Management J. 54(3):461–488.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2010) Speaking up to higher-ups: How supervisors and skip-level leaders influence employee voice. Organ. Sci. 21(1):249–270.Link, Google Scholar
- (2013) Voice flows to and around leaders: Understanding when units are helped or hurt by employee voice. Admin. Sci. Quart. 58(4):624–668.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2012) The paradox of intragroup conflict: A meta-analysis. J. Appl. Psych. 97(2):360–390.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (1988) The coming of the new organization. Harvard Bus. Rev. 66(1):45–53.Google Scholar
- (2003) Speaking up in the operating room: How team leaders promote learning in interdisciplinary action teams. J. Management Stud. 40(6):1419–1452.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2018) Leadership and member voice in action teams: Test of a dynamic phase model. J. Appl. Psych. 103(1):97–110.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2014) Managing to stay in the dark: Managerial self-efficacy, ego defensiveness, and the aversion to employee voice. Acad. Management J. 57(4):1013–1034.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2002) Evolutionary personality psychology and victimology. Evolution Human Behav. 23(4):233–244.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (1998) When tough times make tough bosses: Managerial distancing as a function of layoff blame. Acad. Management J. 41(1):79–87.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (1979) Effects of “voice” and peer opinions on responses to inequity. J. Personality Soc. Psych. 37(12):2253–2261.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (1981) Evaluating structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error. J. Marketing Res. 18(1):39–50.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2001) Personal initiative: An active performance concept for work in the 21st century. Res. Organ. Behav. 23:133–187.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (1987) The validity of the job characteristics model: A review and meta‐analysis. Personality Psych. 40(2):287–322.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2006) Promoting felt responsibility for constructive change and proactive behavior: Exploring aspects of an elaborated model of work design. J. Organ. Behav. 27(8):1089–1120.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2005) Self-determination theory and work motivation. J. Organ. Behav. 26(4):331–362.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2007) Relational job design and the motivation to make a prosocial difference. Acad. Management Rev. 32(2):393–417.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2008) The dynamics of proactivity at work. Res. Organ. Behav. 28:3–34.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2009) Redesigning work design theories: The rise of relational and proactive perspectives. Acad. Management Ann. 3(1):317–375.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (1993) The role of role playing in organizational research. J. Management 19(2):221–241.Google Scholar
- (1986) Development and application of a model of personal control in organizations. Acad. Management Rev. 11(1):164–177.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2017) With great power comes shared responsibility: Psychological power and the delegation of authority. Personality Individual Differences 108(1):1–4.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2013) Introduction to Mediation, Moderation, and Conditional Process Analysis (Guilford Press, New York).Google Scholar
- (1970) Exit, Voice, and Loyalty: Responses to Decline in Firms, Organizations, and States (Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA).Google Scholar
- (2014) Detecting insufficient effort responding with an infrequency scale: Evaluating validity and participant reactions. J. Bus. Psych. 30(2):299–311.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2001) In praise of middle managers. Harvard Bus. Rev. 79(8):72–79.Google Scholar
- (2014) Who can really take on short-termism? Harvard Bus. Rev. 92(1/2):14.Google Scholar
- (2016) Individual differences in the consideration of future and (more) immediate consequences: A review and directions for future research. Soc. Personality Psych. Compass 10(5):313–326.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2006) Good citizens to the end? It depends: Empathy and concern with future consequences moderate the impact of a short-term time horizon on organizational citizenship behaviors. J. Appl. Psych. 91(6):1307–1320.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2000) Personality and job satisfaction: The mediating role of job characteristics. J. Appl. Psych. 85(2):237–249.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (1993) Men and Women of the Corporation, 2nd ed. (Basic Books, New York).Google Scholar
- (2003) Power, approach, and inhibition. Psych. Rev. 110(2):265–284.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2018) Future time perspective: A systematic review and meta-analysis. J. Appl. Psych. 103(8):867–893.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2001) How organizational resources affect strategic change and performance in turbulent environments: Theory and evidence. Organ. Sci. 12(5):632–657.Link, Google Scholar
- (2015) The secret suffering of the middle manager. The Atlantic (August 27), https://www.theatlantic.com/business/archive/2015/08/middle-managers-stress-depression/402193/.Google Scholar
- (2014) When do employees speak up for their customers? A model of voice in a customer service context. Personality Psych. 67(3):637–666.Google Scholar
- (2017) The content of the message matters: The differential effects of promotive and prohibitive team voice on team productivity and safety performance gains. J. Appl. Psych. 102(8):1259–1270.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2012) Psychological antecedents of promotive and prohibitive voice: A two-wave examination. Acad. Management J. 55(1):71–92.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (1961) New Patterns of Management (McGraw-Hill, New York).Google Scholar
- (2002) To parcel or not to parcel: Exploring the question, weighing the merits. Structural Equation Model. 9(2):151–173.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2013) Why the items vs. parcels controversy needn’t be one. Psych. Methods 18(3):285–300.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2007) Work stress and leadership development: The role of self-leadership, shared leadership, physical fitness and flow in managing demands and increasing job control. Human Resources Management Rev. 17(4):374–387.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2011) Challenge-oriented organizational citizenship behaviors and organizational effectiveness: Do challenge-oriented behaviors really have an impact on the organization’s bottom line? Personality Psych. 64(3):559–592.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (1982) Learned helplessness: An alternative explanation for performance deficits. Acad. Management Rev. 7(2):195–204.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2008) Item parceling in structural equation modeling: A primer. Comm. Methods Measures 2(4):260–293.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2014) Speaking more broadly: An examination of the nature, antecedents, and consequences of an expanded set of employee voice behaviors. J. Appl. Psych. 99(1):87–112.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2013) When does voice lead to exit? It depends on leadership. Acad. Management J. 56(2):525–548.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2013) Danger in the middle: Why middle managers aren’t ready to lead. Accessed September 2, 2018, http://www.harvardbusiness.org/sites/default/files/PDF/17807_CL_MiddleManagers_White_Paper_March2013.pdf.Google Scholar
- (2003) An exploratory study of employee silence: Issues that employees don’t communicate upward and why. J. Management Stud. 40(6):1453–1476.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2004) Toward an integrative science of the person. Annual Rev. Psych. 55(1968):1–22.Google Scholar
- (1994) Role definitions and organizational citizenship behavior: The importance of the employee’s perspective. Acad. Management J. 37(6):1543–1567.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2011) Employee voice behavior: Integration and directions for future research. Acad. Management Ann. 5(1):373–412.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2014) Employee voice and silence. Annu. Rev. Organ. Psych. Organ. Behav. 1(1):173–197.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2000) Organizational silence: A barrier to change and development in a pluralistic world. Acad. Management Rev. 25(4):706–725.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2006) Making it safe: The effects of leader inclusiveness and professional status on psychological safety and improvement efforts in healthcare teams. J. Organ. Behav. 27(7):941–966.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2011) Under which conditions do middle managers exhibit transformational leadership behaviors?—An experience sampling method study on the predictors of transformational leadership behaviors. Leadership Quart. 22(2):344–352.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (1976) Conditions under which employees respond positively to enriched work. J. Appl. Psych. 61(4):395–403.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2007) ‘That is my job’: How employees’ role orientation affects their job performance. Human Relations 60(3):403–434.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2014) Beyond motivation: Job and work design for development, health, ambidexterity, and more. Annual Rev. Psych. 65(1):661–691.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (1997) “That’s not my job”: Developing flexible employee work orientations. Acad. Management J. 40(4):899–929.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2006) Modeling the antecedents of proactive behavior at work. J. Appl. Psych. 91(3):636–652.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (1999) The time famine: Toward a sociology of work time. Admin. Sci. Quart. 44(1):57–81.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2000) The Knowing-Doing Gap: How Smart Companies Turn Knowledge into Action (Harvard Business School Press, Boston).Google Scholar
- (2015) One (rating) from many (observations): Factors affecting the individual assessment of voice behavior in groups. J. Appl. Psych. 100(4):1189–1202.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2018) The role of a good soldier: A review of research on organizational citizenship behavior role perceptions and recommendations for the future research. Podsakoff PM, Mackenzie SB, Podsakoff NP, eds. Oxford Handbook of Organizational Citizenship Behavior (Oxford University Press, New York), 91–104.Google Scholar
- (2003) Common method biases in behavioral research: A critical review of the literature and recommended remedies. J. Appl. Psych. 88(5):879–903.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (1982) Changing the world and changing the self: A two-process model of perceived control. J. Personality Soc. Psych. 42(1):5–37.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2011) Antecedents and consequences of psychological and team empowerment in organizations: A meta-analytic review. J. Appl. Psych. 96(5):981–1003.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2018) Centralization of member voice in teams: Its effects on expertise utilization and team performance. J. Appl. Psych. 103(8):813–827.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2019) Too busy to be fair? The effect of workload and rewards on managers’ justice rule adherence. Acad. Management J. 62(2):469–502.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2015) Time in individual-level organizational studies: What is it, how is it used, and why isn’t it exploited more often? Annual Rev. Organ. Psych. Organ. Behav. 2(1):237–260.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2011) The paradox of stretch goals: Organizations in pursuit of the seemingly impossible. Acad. Management Rev. 36(3):544–566.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2005) Two routes to influence: Integrating leader-member exchange and social network perspectives. Admin. Sci. Quart. 50(4):505–535.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (1986) Perceived control by employees: A meta-analysis of studies concerning autonomy and participation at work. Human Relations 39(11):1005–1016.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (1995) Psychological empowerment in the workplace: Dimensions, measurement, and validation. Acad. Management J. 38(5):1442–1465.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (1994) The consideration of future consequences: Weighing immediate and distant outcomes of behavior. J. Personality Soc. Psych. 66(4):742–752.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2008) Exploring nonlineartiy in employee voice: The effects of personal control and organizational identification. Acad. Management J. 51(6):1189–1203.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2012) Ask and you shall hear (but not always): Examining the relationship between manager consultation and employee voice. Personality Psych. 65(2):251–282.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (1998) Helping and voice extra-role behaviors: Evidence of construct and predictive validity. Acad. Management J. 41(1):108–119.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2018) Respectful inquiry: A motivational account of leading through asking open questions and listening. Acad. Management Rev. 43(1):5–27.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2010) When and why do central employees speak up? An examination of mediating and moderating variables. J. Appl. Psych. 95(3):582–591.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2014) Creative benefits from well-connected leaders: Leader social network ties as facilitators of employee radical creativity. J. Appl. Psych. 99(5):966–975.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (1959) Motivation reconsidered: The concept of competence. Psych. Rev. 66:297–333.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2012) Effects of message, source, and context on evaluations of employee voice behavior. J. Appl. Psych. 97(1):159–182.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (1999) Putting time in perspective: A valid, reliable individual-differences metric. J. Personality Soc. Psych. 77(6):1271–1288.Crossref, Google Scholar

