Gender Differences in Pay Levels: An Examination of the Compensation of University Presidents

Published Online:https://doi.org/10.1287/orsc.2018.1266

References

  • Agarwal S, Qian W, Reeb DM, Sing TF (2016) Playing the boys game: Golf buddies and board diversity. Amer. Econom. Rev. 106(5):272–276.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Aiken LS, West SG (1991) Multiple Regression: Testing and Interpreting Interactions (Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA).Google Scholar
  • Altonji JG, Blank RM (1999) Race and gender in the labor market. Ashenfelter O, Card D, eds. Handbook of Labor Economics, vol. 3C (North Holland, New York), 3143–3259.Google Scholar
  • Anderson DJ, Binder M, Krause K (2003) The motherhood wage penalty revisited: Experience, heterogeneity, work effort, and work-schedule flexibility. Indust. Labor Relations Rev. 56(2):273–294.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Antonakis J, Bendahan S, Jacquart P, Lalive R (2010) On making causal claims: A review and recommendations. Leadership Quart. 21(6):1086–1120.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Arulampalam W, Booth AL, Bryan ML (2007) Is there a glass ceiling over Europe? Exploring the gender pay gap across the wage distribution. Indust. Labor Relations Rev. 60(2):163–186.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Austin PC (2011) An introduction to propensity score methods for reducing the effects of confounding in observational studies. Multivariate Behav. Res. 46(3):399–424.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Barbezat DA, Hughes JW (2005) Salary structure effects and the gender pay gap in academia. Res. Higher Ed. 46(6):621–640.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Becker GS (1967) Human Capital and the Personal Distribution of Income: An Analytical Approach (Institute of Public Administration, Ann Arbor, MI).Google Scholar
  • Belliveau MA (2005) Blind ambition? The effects of social networks and institutional sex composition on the job search outcomes of elite coeducational and women’s college graduates. Organ. Sci. 16(2):134–150.LinkGoogle Scholar
  • Berger J, Cohen BP, Zelditch M Jr (1972) Status characteristics and social interaction. Amer. Sociol. Rev. 37(3):241–255.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Bertrand M, Goldin C, Katz LF (2010) Dynamics of the gender gap for young professionals in the financial and corporate sectors. Amer. Econom. J. Appl. Econom. 2(3):228–255.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Bitektine A (2011) Toward a theory of social judgments of organizations: The case of legitimacy, reputation, and status. Acad. Management Rev. 36(1):151–179.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Bizjak JM, Lemmon ML, Naveen L (2008) Does the use of peer groups contribute to higher pay and less efficient compensation? J. Financial Econom. 90(2):152–168.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Blackwell M, Iacus S, King G, Porro G (2009) CEM: Coarsened exact matching in Stata. Stata J. 9(4):524–546.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Blau FD, Kahn LM (2000) Gender differences in pay. J. Econom. Perspect. 14(4):75–99.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Blau FD, Kahn LM (2007) The gender pay gap: Have women gone as far as they can? Acad. Management Perspect. 21(1):7–23.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Boivie S, Graffin SD, Oliver AG, Withers MC (2016) Come aboard! Exploring the effects of directorships in the executive labor market. Acad. Management J. 59(5):1681–1706.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Brands RA, Fernandez-Mateo I (2017) Leaning out: How negative recruitment experiences shape women’s decisions to compete for executive roles. Admin. Sci. Quart. 62(3):405–442.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Brookhart MA, Schneeweiss S, Rothman KJ, Glynn RJ, Avorn J, Stürmer T (2006) Variable selection for propensity score models. Amer. J. Epidemiology 163(12):1149–1156.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Budig MJ, England P (2001) The wage penalty for motherhood. Amer. Sociol. Rev. 66(2):204–225.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Chang S-J, Chung J (2017) A quasi-experimental approach to the multinationality-performance relationship: An application to learning-by-exporting. Global Strategy J. 7(3):257–285.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Conyon MJ, Core JE, Guay WR (2011) Are U.S. CEOs paid more than U.K. CEOs? Inferences from risk-adjusted pay. Rev. Financial Stud. 24(2):402–438.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Cook A, Glass C (2014) Above the glass ceiling: When are women and racial/ethnic minorities promoted to CEO? Strategic Management J. 35(7):1080–1089.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Devers CE, Cannella AA, Reilly GP, Yoder ME (2007) Executive compensation: A multidisciplinary review of recent developments. J. Management 33(6):1016–1072.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • DiPrete TA, Eirich GM, Pittinsky M (2010) Compensation benchmarking, leapfrogs, and the surge in executive pay. Amer. J. Psych. 115(6):1671–1712.Google Scholar
  • Eagly AH, Karau SJ (2002) Role congruity theory of prejudice toward female leaders. Psych. Rev. 109(3):573–598.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • England P, Hermsen JM, Cotter DA (2000) The devaluation of women’s work: A comment on Tam. Amer. J. Psych. 105(6):1741–1751.Google Scholar
  • Espeland WN, Sauder M (2007) Rankings and reactivity: How public measures recreate social worlds. Amer. J. Psych. 113(1):1–40.Google Scholar
  • Ezzamel M, Watson R (1998) Market comparison earnings and the bidding-up of executive cash compensation: Evidence from the United Kingdom. Acad. Management J. 41(2):221–231.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Faulkender M, Yang J (2010) Inside the black box: The role and composition of compensation peer groups. J. Financial Econom. 96(2):257–270.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Fernandez RM, Campero S (2017) Gender sorting and the glass ceiling in high-tech firms. ILR Rev. 70(1):73–104.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Fernandez RM, Friedrich C (2011) Gender sorting at the application interface. Indust. Relations J. Econom. Soc. 50(4):591–609.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Fernandez RM, Mors ML (2008) Competing for jobs: Labor queues and gender sorting in the hiring process. Soc. Sci. Res. 37(4):1061–1080.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Fernandez-Mateo I, Fernandez RM (2016) Bending the pipeline? Executive search and gender inequality in hiring for top management jobs. Management Sci. 62(12):3636–3655.LinkGoogle Scholar
  • Finkelstein S (1992) Power in top management teams: Dimensions, measurement, and validation. Acad. Management J. 35(3):505–538.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Gerhart B (1990) Gender differences in current and starting salaries: The role of performance, college major, and job title. Indust. Labor Relations Rev. 43(4):418–433.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Gould JA, Kulik CT, Sardeshmukh SR (2018) Trickle-down effect: The impact of female board members on executive gender diversity. Human Resources Management 57(4):931–945.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Graffin SD, Bundy J, Porac JF, Wade JB, Quinn DP (2013) Falls from grace and the hazards of high status the 2009 British MP expense scandal and its impact on parliamentary elites. Admin. Sci. Quart. 58(3):313–345.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Guo S, Fraser MW (2010) Propensity Score Analysis: Statistical Methods and Applications (Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA).Google Scholar
  • Heilman ME (2001) Description and prescription: How gender stereotypes prevent women’s ascent up the organizational ladder. J. Soc. Issues 57(4):657–674.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Heilman ME, Block CJ, Martell RF (1995) Sex stereotypes: Do they influence perceptions of managers? J. Soc. Behav. Personality 10(6):237–252.Google Scholar
  • Higgins MC, Gulati R (2003) Getting off to a good start: The effects of upper echelon affiliations on underwriter prestige. Organ. Sci. 14(3):244–263.LinkGoogle Scholar
  • Hill AD, Upadhyay AD, Beekun RI (2015) Do female and ethnically diverse executives endure inequity in the CEO position or do they benefit from their minority status? An empirical examination. Strategic Management J. 36(8):1115–1134.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Hoobler JM, Lemmon G, Wayne SJ (2014) Women’s managerial aspirations: An organizational development perspective. J. Management 40(3):703–730.Google Scholar
  • Hoobler JM, Wayne SJ, Lemmon G (2009) Bosses’ perceptions of family-work conflict and women’s promotability: Glass ceiling effects. Acad. Management J. 52(5):939–957.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Huffman ML, Velasco SC (1997) When more is less: Sex composition, organizations, and earnings in U.S. firms. Work Occupations 24(2):214–244.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Iacus SM, King G, Porro G (2012) Causal inference without balance checking: Coarsened exact matching. Political Anal. 20(1):1–24.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Jaschik S (2007) Should U.S. News make presidents rich? Inside Higher Ed (March 19), https://www.insidehighered.com/news/2007/03/19/should-us-news-make-presidents-rich.Google Scholar
  • Jeong S-H, Harrison DA (2017) Glass breaking, strategy making, and value creating: Meta-analytic outcomes of women as CEOs and TMT members. Acad. Management J. 60(4):1219–1252.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Joshi A (2014) By whom and when is women’s expertise recognized? The interactive effects of gender and education in science and engineering teams. Admin. Sci. Quart. 59(2):202–239.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Kanter RM (1977) Men and Women of the Corporation (Basic Books, New York).Google Scholar
  • King BG, McDonnell M-H (2015) Good firms, good targets: The relationship among corporate social responsibility, reputation, and activist targeting. Tsutsui K, Lim A, eds. Corporate Social Responsibility in a Global World (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK), 430–454.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • King G, Nielsen R (2016) Why Propensity Scores Should Not Be Used for Matching (Harvard University, Cambridge, MA).Google Scholar
  • King EB, Botsford W, Hebl MR, Kazama S, Dawson JF, Perkins A (2012) Benevolent sexism at work: Gender differences in the distribution of challenging developmental experiences. J. Management 38(6):1835–1866.Google Scholar
  • Kovacs B, Sharkey AJ (2014) The paradox of publicity: How awards can negatively affect the evaluation of quality. Admin. Sci. Quart. 59(1):1–33.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Kulich C, Trojanowski G, Ryan MK, Haslam SA, Renneboog LDR (2011) Who gets the carrot and who gets the stick? Evidence of gender disparities in executive remuneration. Strategic Management J. 32(3):301–321.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Lang GE, Lang K (1988) Recognition and renown: The survival of artistic reputation. Amer. J. Psych. 94(1):79–109.Google Scholar
  • Lee PM, James EH (2007) She’-e-os: Gender effects and investor reactions to the announcements of top executive appointments. Strategic Management J. 28(3):227–241.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Leslie LM, Manchester CF, Dahm PC (2017) Why and when does the gender gap reverse? Diversity goals and the pay premium for high potential women. Acad. Management J. 60(2):402–432.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Levanon A, England P, Allison P (2009) Occupational feminization and pay: Assessing causal dynamics using 1950–2000 U.S. census data. Soc. Forces 88(2):865–891.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Li J, Xia J, Lin Z (2017) Cross-border acquisitions by state-owned firms: How do legitimacy concerns affect the completion and duration of their acquisitions? Strategic Management J. 38(9):1915–1934.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • McDonnell M-H, King BG (2013) Keeping up appearances: Reputational threat and impression management after social movement boycotts. Admin. Sci. Quart. 58(3):387–419.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • McDonnell M-H, King BG (2018) Order in the court: How firm status and reputation shape the outcomes of employment discrimination suits. Amer. Sociol. Rev. 83(1):61–87.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Merton RK (1968) The Matthew effect in science: The reward and communication systems of science are considered. Science 159(3810):56–63.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Ostroff C, Atwater LE (2003) Does whom you work with matter? Effects of referent group gender and age composition on managers’ compensation. J. Appl. Psych. 88(4):725–740.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Paik Y, Woo H (2017) The effects of corporate venture capital, founder incumbency, and their interaction on entrepreneurial firms’ R&D investment strategies. Organ. Sci. 28(4):670–689.LinkGoogle Scholar
  • Perretti F, Negro G (2006) Filling empty seats: How status and organizational hierarchies affect exploration vs. exploitation in team design. Acad. Management J. 49(4):759–777.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Pfeffer J, Davis-Blake A (1987) Understanding organizational wage structures: A resource dependence approach. Acad. Management J. 30(3):437–455.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Podolny JM (1993) A status-based model of market competition. Amer. J. Psych. 98(4):829–872.Google Scholar
  • Reskin B, Roos PA (1990) Job Queues, Gender Queues: Explaining Women’s Inroads into Male Occupations (Temple University Press, Philadelphia).Google Scholar
  • Rhee M, Haunschild PR (2006) The liability of good reputation: A study of product recalls in the U.S. automobile industry. Organ. Sci. 17(1):101–117.LinkGoogle Scholar
  • Rider CI, Negro G (2015) Organizational failure and intraprofessional status loss. Organ. Sci. 26(3):633–649.LinkGoogle Scholar
  • Rindova VP, Williamson IO, Petkova AP, Sever JM (2005) Being good or being known: An empirical examination of the dimensions, antecedents, and consequences of organizational reputation. Acad. Management J. 48(6):1033–1049.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Rosette AS, Tost LP (2010) Agentic women and communal leadership: How role prescriptions confer advantage to top women leaders. J. Appl. Psych. 95(2):221–235.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Rudman LA, Glick P (1999) Feminized management and backlash toward agentic women: The hidden costs to women of a kinder, gentler image of middle managers. J. Personality Soc. Psych. 77(5):1004–1010.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Schein VE (1973) The relationship between sex role stereotypes and requisite management characteristics. J. Appl. Psych. 57(2):95–100.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Schein VE (1975) Relationships between sex role stereotypes and requisite management characteristics among female managers. J. Appl. Psych. 60(3):340–344.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Schwartz M (2011) Getting presidential compensation right. Trusteeship 19(6), https://www.agb.org/trusteeship/2011/novemberdecember/getting-presidential-compensation-right.Google Scholar
  • Serafeim G, Bernstock L, Brown S, Zheng C (2017) The Calvert diversity report 2017: Examining the cracks in the ceiling. Report, Eaton Vance, London.Google Scholar
  • Shin T (2014) Explaining pay disparities between top executives and nonexecutive employees: A relative bargaining power approach. Soc. Forces 92(4):1339–1372.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Sine WD, Shane S, Di Gregorio D (2003) The halo effect and technology licensing: The influence of institutional prestige on the licensing of university inventions. Management Sci. 49(4):478–496.LinkGoogle Scholar
  • Smidts A, Pruyn ATH, Van Riel CBM (2001) The impact of employee communication and perceived external prestige on organizational identification. Acad. Management J. 44(5):1051–1062.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Sorensen E (1994) Comparable Worth: Is It a Worthy Policy? (Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ).Google Scholar
  • Sorenson O (2014) Status and reputation: Synonyms or separate concepts? Strategic Organ. 12(1):62–69.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Tosi HL, Werner S, Katz JP, Gomez-Mejia LR (2000) How much does performance matter? A meta-analysis of CEO pay studies. J. Management 26(2):301–339.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Wade JB, Porac JF, Pollock TG, Graffin SD (2006) The burden of celebrity: The impact of CEO certification contests on CEO pay and performance. Acad. Management J. 49(4):643–660.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Weichselbaumer D, Winter‐Ebmer R (2005) A meta-analysis of the international gender wage gap. J. Econom. Surveys 19(3):479–511.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
INFORMS site uses cookies to store information on your computer. Some are essential to make our site work; Others help us improve the user experience. By using this site, you consent to the placement of these cookies. Please read our Privacy Statement to learn more.