Delays Impair Learning and Can Drive Convergence to Inefficient Strategies
References
- (1991) Managerial fads and fashions: The diffusion and rejection of innovations. Acad. Management Rev. 16(3):586–612.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (1999) Research in the psychological laboratory: Truth or triviality? Current Direction Psych. Sci. 8(1):3–9.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (1989) Competing technologies, increasing returns, and lock in by historical events. Econom. J. (London) 99(1):116–131.Google Scholar
- (1986) Strategic factor markets: Expectations, luck and business strategy. Management Sci. 32(10):1231–1241.Link, Google Scholar
- (2003) Small feedback-based decisions and their limited correspondence to description-based decisions. J. Behav. Decision Making 16(3):215–233.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2018) On iron cages and suboptimal choices: An experimental test of the micro-foundations of isomorphism in the public sector. Internat. Public Management J. 22(2):373–414.Google Scholar
- (2014) Search on rugged landscapes: An experimental study. Organ. Sci. 25(1):93–108.Link, Google Scholar
- (1992) Dynamic decision making: Human control of complex systems. Acta Psych. (Amsterdam) 8(1):83–90.Google Scholar
- (1991) Dynamic decision making: The effects of task complexity and feedback delay. Rasmussen J, Brehmer B, Leplat J, eds. Distributed Decision Making: Cognitive Models for Cooperative Work (John Wiley & Sons, Oxford, UK), 319–334.Google Scholar
- (1974) Robust test for the equality of variances. J. Amer. Statist. Assoc. 69(346):364–367.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (1985) Experience and Decision Making: A Comparison of Students and Businessmen in a Simulated Progressive Auction Research in Experimental Economics (JAI Press, Greenwich, CT).Google Scholar
- (1993) Decision field-theory: A dynamic cognitive approach to decision-making in an uncertain environment. Psych. Rev. 100(3):432–459.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (1986) An adaptive approach to resource-allocation. Organ. Behav. Human Decision Processes 38(3):318–341.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2011) Do social preferences increase productivity? Field experimental evidence from fishermen in Toyama Bay. Econom. Inquiry 49(2):612–630.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2017) Amazon Mechanical Turk in organizational psychology: An evaluation and practical recommendations. J. Bus. Psych. 32(4):347–361.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2020) An MTurk crisis? Shifts in data quality and the impact on study results. Social Psych. Personality Sci. 11(4):464–473.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2000) Untangling the origins of competitive advantage. Strategic Management J. 21(10–11):1123–1145.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2001) The role of justice in organizations: A meta-analysis. Organ. Behav. Human Decision Processes 86(2):278–321.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2014) Order stability in supply chains: Coordination risk and the role of coordination stock. Production Oper. Management 23(2):176–196.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2016) Mental representation and the discovery of new strategies. Strategic Management J. 37(10):2031–2049.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2001) Adaptation as information restriction: The hot stove effect. Organ. Sci. 12(5):523–538.Link, Google Scholar
- (2004) From T-mazes to labyrinths: Learning from model-based feedback. Management Sci. 50(10):1366–1378.Link, Google Scholar
- (2003) The economics of strategic opportunity.Strategic Management J. 24(10):977–990.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (1995) Effects of feedback complexity on dynamic decision making. Organ. Behav. Human Decision Processes 62(2):198–215.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (1989) Asset stock accumulation and sustainability of competitive advantage. Management Sci. 35(12):1504–1511.Link, Google Scholar
- (2013) Learning and the economics of small decisions. Kagel JH, Roth AE, eds. The Handbook of Experimental Economics, vol. 2 (Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ), 638–700.Google Scholar
- (1984) Protocol Analysis: Verbal Reports as Data (MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.)Google Scholar
- (2012) Organizational learning as credit assignment: A model and two experiments. Organ. Sci. 23(6):1717–1732.Link, Google Scholar
- (2009) Near-term liability of exploitation: Exploration and exploitation in multistage problems. Organ. Sci. 20(3):538–551.Link, Google Scholar
- (2007) G*Power 3: A flexible statistical power analysis program for the social, behavioral, and biomedical sciences. Behav. Res. Methods 39(2):175–191.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (1961) Industrial Dynamics, 1st ed. (MIT Press, Cambridge, MA).Google Scholar
- (2015) Laboratory experiments: Professionals vs. students. Fréchette GR, Schotter A, eds. Handbook of Experimental Economic Methodology (Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK), 360–390.Google Scholar
- (2006) Breaking the trade-off—Between efficiency and service. Harvard Bus. Rev. 84(11):92.Google Scholar
- (2007) Simple models of discrete choice and their performance in bandit experiments. Manufacturing Service Oper. Management 9(4):383–408.Google Scholar
- (2011) Mental models, decision rules, and performance heterogeneity. Strategic Management J. 32(6):569–594.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2017) Stretch goals and the distribution of organizational performance. Organ. Sci. 28(3):395–410.Link, Google Scholar
- (2000) Looking forward and looking backward: Cognitive and experiential search. Admin. Sci. Quart. 45(1):113–137.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2007) Neo-Carnegie: The Carnegie School’s past, present, and reconstructing for the future. Organ. Sci. 18(3):523–536.Link, Google Scholar
- (2011) Multi-Armed Bandit Allocation Indices (John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken, NJ).Google Scholar
- (2004) Learning to make decisions in dynamic environments: Effects of time constraints and cognitive abilities. Human Factors 46(3):449–460.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2005) The use of microworlds to study dynamic decision making. Comput. Human Behav. 21(2):273–286.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (1974) Signal Detection Theory and Psychophysics (Krieger Publishing Company, Huntington, NY).Google Scholar
- (1961) Relative and absolute strength of response as a function of frequency of reinforcement. J. Experiment. Anal. Behav. 4(3):267–272.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2004) Decisions from experience and the effect of rare events in risky choice. Psych. Sci. 15(8):534–539.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2016) Dynamic decision making using the balanced scorecard framework. Accounting Rev. 91(5):1441–1465.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (1996) What works at work: Overview and assessment. Indust. Relations 35(3):299–333.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (1998) HARKing: Hypothesizing after the results are known. Personality Social. Psych. Rev. 2(3):196–217.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2010) Managerial decision making and firm performance under a resource-based paradigm. Strategic Management J. 31(11):1164–1182.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2014) Cognitive control capabilities, routinization propensity, and decision-making performance. Organ. Sci. 25(4):1111–1133.Link, Google Scholar
- (2018) What makes a decision strategic? Strategy Sci. 3(4):558–573.Link, Google Scholar
- (2006) Interdependency, competition, and the distribution of firm and industry profits. Management Sci. 52(5):757–772.Link, Google Scholar
- (1960) Robust tests for equality of variances. Olkin I, Ghurye SG, Hoeffding W, Madow WG, Mann HB, eds. Contributions to Probability and Statistics: Essays in Honor of Harold Hotelling (Stanford University Press, Menlo Park, CA), 278–292.Google Scholar
- (2017) Strategic intelligence: The cognitive capability to anticipate competitor behavior. Strategic Management J. 38(12):2390–2423.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (1997) Adaptation on rugged landscapes. Management Sci. 43(7):934–950.Link, Google Scholar
- (2011) A behavioral approach to strategy: What’s the alternative? Strategic Management J. 32(13):1517–1523.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (1993) The myopia of learning. Strategic Management J. 14(Suppl. 2):95–112.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (1988) Organizational learning. Annual Rev. Sociol. 14:319–340.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (1975) Uncertainty of past: Organizational learning under ambiguity. Eur. J. Political Res. 3(2):147–171.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2012) Conducting behavioral research on Amazon’s Mechanical Turk. Behav. Res. Methods 44(1):1–23.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2012) Collaborative learning in networks. Proc. National Acad. Sci. USA 109(3):764–769.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (1960) The Human Side of Enterprise (McGraw-Hill, New York).Google Scholar
- (1961) Steps toward artificial intelligence. Proc. Inst. Radio Engrg. 49(1):8–30.Google Scholar
- (1960) Effects of range of payoffs as a variable in risk-taking. J. Experiment. Psych. 60(5):306–309.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2010) Controlling uncertainty: A review of human behavior in complex dynamic environments. Psych. Bull. 136(1):65–86.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2000) Work reorganization in an era of restructuring: Trends in diffusion and effects on employee welfare. Indust. Labor Relation Rev. 53(2):179–196.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2010) Running experiments on Amazon Mechanical Turk. Judgment Decision Making 5(5):411–419.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2008) Contextuality within activity systems and sustainability of competitive advantage. Acad. Management Perspect. 22(2):34–56.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (1991) Toward a dynamic theory of strategy. Strategic Management J. 12(S2):95–117.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2012) Chasing a moving target: Exploitation and exploration in dynamic environments. Management Sci. 58(3):587–601.Link, Google Scholar
- (2018) Renewing research on problemistic search: A review and research agenda. Acad. Management Ann. 12(1):208–251.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2015) Modeling bounded rationality in organizations: Progress and prospects. Acad. Management Ann. 9(1):337–392.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2019) Math matters: Mathematical knowledge plays an essential role in Chinese undergraduates’ stock-and-flow task performance. System Dynam. Rev. 35(3):208–231.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2008) Effect of delays on complexity of organizational learning. Management Sci. 54(7):1297–1312.Link, Google Scholar
- (2019) Interdependence, complementarity, and ruggedness of performance landscapes. Strategy Sci. 4(3):234–249.Link, Google Scholar
- (2020) If higher pay is profitable, why is it so rare? Modeling competing strategies in mass market services. Organ. Sci. 31(5):1053–1071.Link, Google Scholar
- (2018) Making the numbers? “Short termism” and the puzzle of only occasional disaster. Management Sci. 64(3):1328–1347.Link, Google Scholar
- (2009) Effects of feedback delay on learning. System Dynamics Rev. 25(4):309–338.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2002) Capability traps and self-confirming attribution errors in the dynamics of process improvement. Admin. Sci. Quart. 47(2):265–295.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2018) Behavior in behavioral strategy: Capturing, measuring, analyzing. Augier M, Fang C, Rindova R, eds. Behavioral Strategy in Perspective, Advances in Strategic Management, vol. 39 (Emerald Publishing Limited, Bingley, UK), 221–246.Google Scholar
- (2003) How do people learn to allocate resources? Comparing two learning theories. J. Experiment. Psych. Learn. Memory Cognition 29(6):1066–1081.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2007) Patterned interactions in complex systems: Implications for exploration. Management Sci. 53(7):1068–1085.Link, Google Scholar
- (2003) Diffusion of Innovations, 5th ed. (Free Press, New York).Google Scholar
- (1959) Some studies in machine learning using the game of checkers. IBM J. Res. Development 3(3):210–229.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (1990) Invariants of human-behavior. Annual Rev. Psych. 41(1):1–19.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (1989) Modeling managerial behavior: Misperceptions of feedback in a dynamic decision making experiment. Management Sci. 35(3):321–339.Link, Google Scholar
- (2006) Learning from evidence in a complex world. Amer. J. Public Health 96(3):505–514.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2018) System dynamics at sixty: The path forward. System Dynam. Rev. 34(1–2):5–47.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2014) The Good Jobs Strategy: How the Smartest Companies Invest in Employees to Lower Costs and Boost Profits (New Harvest Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, Boston).Google Scholar
- (2000) Capabilities, cognition, and inertia: Evidence from digital imaging. Strategic Management J. 21(10–11):1147–1161.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2018) A basic theory of inheritance: How bad practice prevails. Strategic Management J. 39(6):1603–1629.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (1977) Role of institutionalization in cultural persistence. Amer. Sociol. Rev. 42(5):726–743.Crossref, Google Scholar

