Can Racial Diversity Attenuate Racial Discrimination in Service Interactions? Evidence from Cite-and-Release Decisions within Police Departments

Published Online:https://doi.org/10.1287/orsc.2021.1571

References

  • Adams RE, Rohe WM, Arcury TA (2002) Implementing community-oriented policing: Organizational change and street officer attitudes. Crime Delinq. 48(3):399–430.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Agresti A, Agresti BF (1978) Statistical analysis of qualitative variation. Schuessler KF, ed. Sociological Methodology (Jossey Bass, San Francisco), 204–237.Google Scholar
  • Allmendinger J, Hackman JR (1995) The more the better? A four-nation study of the inclusion of women in symphony orchestras. Soc. Forces. 74:423–460.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Allport GW (1954) Nature of Prejudice (Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA).Google Scholar
  • Amir, Y. (1969) Contact hypothesis in ethnic relations. Psychological Bulletin 71(1):319–342.Google Scholar
  • Amis JM, Mair J, Munir KA (2020) The organizational reproduction of inequality. Acad. Management Ann. 14(1):195–230.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Angrist JD, Pischke J-S (2008) Mostly Harmless Econometrics: An Empiricist’s Companion (Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ).CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Anicich EM, Jachimowicz JM, Osborne MR, Phillips LT (2021) Structuring local environments to avoid racial diversity: Anxiety drives whites’ geographical and institutional self-segregation preferences. J. Exp. Soc. Psychol. 95:104–117.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Aronson E, Patnoe S (1997) The Jigsaw Classroom: Building Cooperation in the Classroom (Longman, Ann Arbor, MI).Google Scholar
  • Ashkenas J, Park H (2015) The race gap in America’s police departments. New York Times. Retrieved from https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2014/09/03/us/the-race-gap-in-americas-police-departments.html?_%20r=1.Google Scholar
  • Avery DR, McKay PF, Wilson DC, Tonidandel S (2007) Unequal attendance: The relationships between race, organizational diversity cues, and absenteeism. Person. Psychol. 60(4):875–902.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Ayres I, Siegelman P (1995) Race and gender discrimination in bargaining for a new car. Amer. Econom. Rev. 85(3):304–321.Google Scholar
  • Bacharach SB, Bamberger PA, Vashdi D (2005) Diversity and homophily at work: Supportive relations among white and African-American peers. Acad. Management J. 48(4):619–644.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Baldi S, McBrier DB (1997) Do the determinants of promotion differ for blacks and whites? Evidence from the US labor market. Work Occup. 24(4):478–497.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Bapuji H, Patel C, Ertug G, Allen DG (2020) Corona crisis and inequality: Why management research needs a societal turn. J. Management 46(7):1205–1222.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Baron JN (1984) Organizational perspectives on stratification. Annu. Rev. Sociol. 10(1):37–69.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Beck AN, Muschkin CG (2012) The enduring impact of race: Understanding disparities in student disciplinary infractions and achievement. Sociol. Perspect. 55(4):637–662.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Bezrukova K, Jehn KA, Spell CS (2012) Reviewing diversity training: Where we have been and where we should go. Acad. Management Learn. Ed. 11(2):207–227.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Binder J, Zagefka H, Brown R, Funke F, Kessler T, Mummendey A, Maquil A, Demoulin S, Leyens J (2009) Does contact reduce prejudice or does prejudice reduce contact? A longitudinal test of the contact hypothesis among majority and minority groups in three European countries. J. Personality Soc. Psychol. 96(4):843–856.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Blalock HM (1967) Toward a Theory of Minority Group Relations (John Wiley, New York).Google Scholar
  • Blau PM (1977) Inequality and Heterogeneity (Free Press, New York).Google Scholar
  • Blumer H (1958) Race prejudice as a sense of group position. Pac. Sociol. Rev. 1(1):3–7.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Bobo L, Hutchings, VL (1996) Perceptions of racial group competition: Extending Blumer’s theory of group position to a multiracial social context. Amer. Sociol. Rev. 61(6):951–972.Google Scholar
  • Brewer MB, Miller N (1984) Beyond the contact hypothesis: Theoretical perspectives on desegregation. Miller N, Brewer MB, eds. Groups in Contact: The Psychology of Desegregation. (Academic Press, Orlando, FL), 281–302.Google Scholar
  • Brickson S (2000) The impact of identity orientation on individuals and organizational outcomes in demographically diverse settings. Acad. Management Rev. 25(1):82–101.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Brown M (1981) Working the Street: Police Discretion and the Dilemmas of Reform (Russell Sage Foundation, New York).Google Scholar
  • Brown RA, Frank J (2005) Police-citizen encounters and field citations: Do encounter characteristics influence ticketing? Policing. 28(3):435–454.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Burke RJ (1989) Career stages, satisfaction, and well-being among police officers. Psychol. Rep. 65:3–12.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Byrne DE (1971) The attraction Paradigm (Academic Press, New York).Google Scholar
  • Cameron S (1991) Policing in the uneconomic zone of the production function. J. Socio-Economics. 20:313–323.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Carter ER, Onyeador IN, Lewis NA Jr (2020) Developing & delivering effective anti-bias training: Challenges & recommendations. Behav. Sci. Policy. 6(1):57–70.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Chatman JA, Flynn FJ (2001) The influence of demographic heterogeneity on the emergence and consequences of cooperative norms in work teams. Acad. Management J. 44(5):956–974.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Chatman JA, Polzer JT, Barsade SG, Neale MA (1998) Being different yet feeling similar: The influence of demographic composition and organizational culture on work processes and outcomes. Admin. Sci. Quart. 43(4):749–780.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Cheng JL (1983) Interdependence and coordination in organizations: A role-system analysis. Acad. Management J. 26(1):156–162.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Cheurprakobkit S (2002) Community-oriented policing: Training, definitions and policy implications. Policing. 25(4):709–725.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Colvin RA (2012) Gay and Lesbian Cops: Diversity and Effective Policing (Lynne Rienner Publishers, Boulder, CO).CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Cordner GW (2014) Community-oriented policing. Reisig M, Kane R, eds. The Oxford Handbook of Police and Policing (Oxford University Press, New York), 148–171.Google Scholar
  • Correia S (2017) Linear models with high-dimensional fixed effects: An efficient and feasible estimator. Working Paper. Retrieved from http://scorreia.com/research/hdfe.pdf.Google Scholar
  • Correll J, Park B (2007) A model of the ingroup as a social resource. Pers. Soc. Psychol. Rev. 9:341–359.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Cox TH (1994) Cultural Diversity in Organizations: Theory, Research and Practice (Berrett-Koehler Publishers, San Francisco).Google Scholar
  • Cox TH, Blake S (1991) Managing cultural diversity: Implications for organizational competitiveness. Acad. Management Perspect. 5(3):45–56.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Craig MA, Richeson JA (2014) On the precipice of a “majority-minority” America: Perceived status threat from the racial demographic shift affects white Americans’ political ideology. Psychol. Sci. 25(6):1189–1197.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Craig MA, Rucker JM, Richeson JA (2018) The pitfalls and promise of increasing racial diversity: Threat, contact, and race relations in the 21st century. Curr. Dir. Psychol. Sci. 27(3):188–193.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Davies K, Wright SC, Aron A, Comeau J (2013) Intergroup contact through friendship: Intimacy and norms. Hodson G, Hewstone M, eds. Advances in Intergroup Contact (Psychology Press, New York), 200–230.Google Scholar
  • DeCelles KA, Anteby M (2020) Compassion in the clink: When and how human services workers overcome barriers to care. Organ. Sci. 31(6):1408–1431.LinkGoogle Scholar
  • Decker SH, Smith RL (1980) Police minority recruitment: A note on its effectiveness in improving Black evaluations of the police. J. Crim. Justice. 8(6):387–393.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • DiTomaso N (2013) The American Non-Dilemma: Racial Inequality without Racism (Russell Sage Foundation, New York).Google Scholar
  • DiTomaso N, Post C, Parks-Yancy R (2007) Workforce diversity and inequality: Power, status, and numbers. Annu. Rev. Sociol. 33:473–501.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Dixon TL, Schell TL, Giles H, Drogos KL (2008) The influence of race in police–civilian interactions: A content analysis of videotaped interactions taken during Cincinnati police traffic stops. J. Commun. 58(3):530–549.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Dobbin F, Kalev A (2016) Why diversity programs fail and what works better. Harv. Bus. Rev. 94(7-8):52–60.Google Scholar
  • Dover TL, Major B, Kaiser CR (2016) Members of high-status groups are threatened by pro-diversity organizational messages. J. Exp. Soc. Psychol. 62:58–67.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Dovidio JF, Love A, Schellhaas FM, Hewstone M (2017) Reducing intergroup bias through intergroup contact: Twenty years of progress and future directions. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations 20(5):606–620.Google Scholar
  • Dumas TL, Phillips KW, Rothbard NP (2013) Getting closer at the company party: Integration experiences, racial dissimilarity, and workplace relationships. Organ. Sci. 24(5):1377–1401.LinkGoogle Scholar
  • Edelman B, Luca M, Svirsky D (2017) Racial discrimination in the sharing economy: Evidence from a field experiment. Am. Econ. J. Appl. Econ. 9(2):1–22.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Eitle D, Stolzenberg L, D’Alessio S (2005) Police organizational factors, the racial composition of the police, and the probability of arrest. Justice Q. 22(1):30–57.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Ely R, Feldberg AC (2018) Organizational remedies for discrimination. In: Colella AJ, King EB, eds. The Oxford Handbook of Workplace Discrimination (Oxford University Press, New York), 387–410.Google Scholar
  • Flynn FJ, Chatman JA, Spataro SE (2001) Getting to know you: The influence of personality on impressions and performance of demographically different people in organizations. Adm. Sci. Q. 46(3):414–442.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Fossett MA, Kiecolt KJ (1989) The relative size of minority populations and white racial attitudes. Soc. Sci. Q. 70(4):820–835.Google Scholar
  • Gaertner SL, Dovidio JF (2000) Reducing Intergroup Bias: The Common Ingroup Identity Model (Psychology Press, Philadelphia).Google Scholar
  • Gaertner SL, Mann JA, Dovidio JF, Murrell AJ, Pomare M (1990) How does cooperation reduce intergroup bias? J. Personality Soc. Psych. 59(4):692–704.Google Scholar
  • George G, Howard-Grenville J, Joshi A, Tihanyi L (2016) Understanding and tackling societal grand challenges through management research. Acad. Management J. 59(6):1880–1895.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Gittell JH, Seidner R, Wimbush J (2010) A relational model of how high-performance work systems work. Organ. Sci. 21(2):490–506.LinkGoogle Scholar
  • Giulietti C, Tonin M, Vlassopoulos M (2019) Racial discrimination in local public Services: A field experiment in the United States. J. Eur. Econ. Assoc. 17(1):165–204.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Glisson CA, Durick M (1988) Predictors of job satisfaction and organizational commitment in human service organizations. Adm. Sci. Q. 33(1):61–81.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Glisson CA, Martin PY (1980) Productivity and efficiency in human service organizations as related to structure, size, and age. Acad. Management J. 23(1):21–37.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Guajardo SA (2014) Workforce diversity: Ethnicity and gender diversity and disparity in the New York City Police Department. J. Ethn. Crim. Justice. 12(2):93–115.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Guillaume YR, Dawson JF, Otaye‐Ebede L, Woods SA, West MA (2017) Harnessing demographic differences in organizations: What moderates the effects of workplace diversity? J. Organ. Behav. 38(2):276–303.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Hall AV, Hall EV, Perry JL (2016) Black and blue: Exploring racial bias and law enforcement in the killings of unarmed black male civilians. Am. Psychol. 71(3):175–186.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Harris AG, Henderson GR, Williams JD (2005) Courting customers: Assessing client racial profiling and other marketplace discrimination. J. Public Policy Mark. 24(1):163–171.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Harrison DA, Klein KJ (2007) What’s the difference? Diversity constructs as separation, variety, or disparity in organizations. Acad. Management Rev. 32(4):1199–1228.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Harrison DA, Price KH, Bell MP (1998) Beyond relational demography: Time and the effects of surface-and deep-level diversity on work group cohesion. Acad. Management J. 41(1):96–107.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Harrison DA, Price KH, Gavin JH, Florey AT (2002) Time, teams, and task performance: Changing effects of surface-and deep-level diversity on group functioning. Acad. Management J. 45(5):1029–1045.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Hassell KD, Brandl SG (2009) An examination of the workplace experiences of police patrol officers: The role of race, sex, and sexual orientation. Police Q. 12(4):408–430.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Hellevik O (2007) Linear vs. logistic regression when the dependent variable is a dichotomy. Qual. Quant. 43(1):59–74.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Herring C (2009) Does diversity pay?: Race, gender, and the business case for diversity. Am. Sociol. Rev. 74(2):208–224.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Hirschel JD, Dean CW (1995) The relative cost-effectiveness of citation and arrest. J. Crim. Justice. 23(1):1–12.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Homan AC (2019) Dealing with diversity in workgroups: Preventing problems and promoting potential. Soc. Personal. Psychol. Compass. 13(5):e12465.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Horney J (1980) Citation arrest: Extending the reach of the criminal justice system? Criminology 17(4):419–434.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Hur Y (2013a) Racial diversity, is it a blessing to an organization? Examining its organizational consequences in municipal police departments. Int. Rev. Adm. Sci. 79(1):149–164.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Hur Y (2013b) Turnover, voluntary turnover, and organizational performance: Evidence from municipal police departments. Public Adm. Q. 37(1):3–35.Google Scholar
  • Ibarra H (1995) Race, opportunity, and diversity of social circles in managerial networks. Acad. Management J. 38(3):673–703.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • James EH, Brief AP, Dietz J, Cohen RR (2001) Prejudice matters: Understanding the reactions of Whites to affirmative action programs targeted to benefit Blacks. J. Appl. Psychol. 86(6):1120–1128.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Joshi A, Liao H, Roh H (2011) Bridging domains in workplace demography research: A review and reconceptualization. J. Management 37(2):521–552.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • King EB, Dawson JF, West MA, Gilrane VL, Peddie CI, Bastin L (2011) Why organizational and community diversity matter: Representativeness and the emergence of incivility and organizational performance. Acad. Management J. 54(6):1103–1118.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Kochel TR, Wilson DB, Mastrofski SD (2011) Effect of suspect race on officers’ arrest decisions. Criminology. 49(2):473–512.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Kramer R, Remster B (2018) Stop, frisk, and assault? Racial disparities in police use of force during investigatory stops. Law Soc. Rev. 52(4):960–993.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Lawrence BS (2006) Organizational reference groups: A missing perspective on social context. Organ. Sci. 17(1):80–100.LinkGoogle Scholar
  • Lewin K (1948) Resolving Social Conflicts: Selected Papers on Group Dynamics (1935–1946) (Harper, New York).Google Scholar
  • Lipsky M (1980) Street-level Bureaucracy: Dilemmas of the Individual in Public Services (Russell Sage Foundation, New York).Google Scholar
  • Lum CM, Koper CS, Gill C, Hibdon J, Telep C, Robinson L (2016) An Evidence-Assessment of the Recommendations of the President’s Task Force on 21st Century Policing: Implementation and Research Priorities (International Association of Chiefs of Police, Alexandria, VA).Google Scholar
  • Lundman RJ (1979) Organizational norms and police discretion: an observational study of police work with traffic law violators. Criminology. 17:159–171.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Matusiak MC, Campbell BA, King WR (2014) The legacy of LEMAS: Effects on police scholarship of a federally administered, multi-wave establishment survey. Policing. 37(3):630–648.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • McKay PF, Avery DR, Liao H, Morris MA (2011) Does diversity climate lead to customer satisfaction? It depends on the service climate and business unit demography. Organ. Sci. 22(3):788–803.LinkGoogle Scholar
  • McPherson M, Smith-Lovin L, Cook JM (2001) Birds of a feather: Homophily in social networks. Annu. Rev. Sociol. 27:415–444.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Mehra A, Kilduff M, Brass D (1998) At the margins: A distinctiveness approach to social identity and social networks of underrepresented groups. Acad. Management J. 41(4):441–452.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Meuris J, Leana CR (2015) The high cost of low wages: Economic scarcity effects in organizations. Res. Organ. Behav. 35:143–158.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Milkman KL, Akinola M, Chugh D (2015) What happens before? A field experiment exploring how pay and representation differentially shape bias on the pathway into organizations. J. Appl. Psychol. 100(6):1678–1712.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Miller N (2002) Personalization and the promise of contact theory. J. Soc. Issues. 58:387–410.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Morabito M (2010) Understanding community-oriented policing as an innovation: Patterns of adoption. Crime Delinq. 56(4):564–587.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Outten HR, Schmitt MT, Miller DA, Garcia AL (2012) Feeling threatened about the future: Whites’ emotional reactions to anticipated ethnic demographic changes. Pers. Soc. Psychol. Bull. 38(1):14–25.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Quillian L (1996) Group threat and regional change in attitudes toward African Americans. Am. J. Sociol. 102:816–860.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Pager D, Shepherd H (2008) The sociology of discrimination: Racial discrimination in employment, housing, credit, and client markets. Annu. Rev. Sociol. 34:181–209.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Paluck EL, Porat R, Clark CS, Green DP (2021) Prejudice reduction: Progress and challenges. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 72:533–560.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Paoline III EA, Myers SM, Worden RE (2000) Police culture, individualism, and community-oriented policing: Evidence from two police departments. Justice Q. 17(3):575–605.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Patil SV, Lebel RD (2019) “I want to serve but the public does not understand:” Prosocial motivation, image discrepancies, and proactivity in public safety. Organ. Behav. Human Decision Processes. 154(1):34–48.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Pendry LF, Driscoll DM, Field SC (2007) Diversity training: Putting theory into practice. J. Occup. Organ. Psychol. 80(1):27–50.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Pettigrew TF (1998) Intergroup contact theory. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 49:65–85.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Pettigrew TF, Tropp LR (2006) A meta-analytic test of intergroup contact theory. J. Personality Soc. Psychol. 90(5):751–783.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Pierson E, Simoiu C, Overgoor J, Corbett-Davies S, Jenson D, Shoemaker A, Ramachandran V, et al. (2020) A large-scale analysis of racial disparities in police stops across the United States. Nat. Hum. Behav. 4:736–745.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Reskin BF (2000) Getting it right: Sex and race inequality in work organizations. Annual Rev. Sociol. 26(1):707–709.Google Scholar
  • Reskin BF, McBrier DB, Kmec JA (1999) The determinants and consequences of workplace sex and race composition. Annu. Rev. Sociol. 25(1):335–361.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Richard OC (2000) Racial diversity, business strategy, and firm performance: A resource-based view. Acad. Management J. 43(2):164–177.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Richard OC, Triana MDC, Li M (2021) The effects of racial diversity congruence between upper management and lower management on firm productivity. Acad. Management J. 64(5):1355–1382.Google Scholar
  • Riddle T, Sinclair S (2019) Racial disparities in school-based disciplinary actions are associated with county-level rates of racial bias. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 116(17):8255–8260.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Roberson QM (2019) Diversity in the workplace: A review, synthesis, and future research agenda. Annu. Rev. Organ. Psychol. Organ. Behav. 6:69–88.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Roberson QM, Park HJ (2007) Examining the link between diversity and firm performance: The effects of diversity reputation and leader racial diversity. Group Organ. Management 32(5):548–568.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Roberson QM, Ryan AM, Ragins BR (2017) The evolution and future of diversity at work. J. Appl. Psychol. 102(3):483–499.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Roberts A (2008) The influences of incident and contextual characteristics on crime clearance of nonlethal violence: A multilevel event history analysis. J. Crim. Justice. 36:61–71.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Roberts A, Roberts JM (2016) Crime clearance and temporal variation in police investigative workload: Evidence from National Incident-Based Reporting System (NIBRS) data. J. Quant. Criminol. 32(4):651–674.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Roscigno VJ (2007) The Face of Discrimination: How Race and Gender Impact Work and Home Lives (Rowman & Littlefield, Lanham, MD).Google Scholar
  • Rubineau B, Kang Y (2012) Bias in white: A longitudinal natural experiment measuring changes in discrimination. Management Sci. 58(4):660–677.LinkGoogle Scholar
  • Rushton M (2008) A note on the use and misuse of the racial diversity index. Policy Stud. J. 36(3):445–459.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Scheider MC, Chapman R, Schapiro A (2009) Toward the unification of policing innovations under community-oriented policing. Policing. 32(4):694–718.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Sherif M (1958) Superordinate goals in the reduction of intergroup conflict. Am. J. Sociol. 63(4):349–356.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Sherif M, Harvey OJ, White BJ, Hood WR, Sherif CW (1961) Intergroup Conflict and Cooperation. The Robbers Cave Experiment (University of Oklahoma Book Exchange, Norman, OK).Google Scholar
  • Sklansky DA (2005) Not your father’s police department: Making sense of the new demographics of law enforcement. J. Crim. Law Criminol. 96(3):1209–1243.Google Scholar
  • Smith FT (1943) An Experiment in Modifying Attitudes Toward the Negro (Teachers College, Columbia University, New York).Google Scholar
  • Stevens M (2018, April 15). Starbucks C.E.O. Apologizes After Arrests of 2 Black Men. New York Times. Retrieved from https://www.nytimes.com/2018/04/15/us/starbucks-philadelphia-black-men-arrest.html.Google Scholar
  • Stouffer SA (1949) The American Soldier. (Princeton University Press, New Jersey, NJ)Google Scholar
  • Tajfel H, Turner JC (1986) The social identity theory of intergroup behaviour. In: Worchel S, Austin WG, eds. Psychology of Intergroup Relations (Nelson-Hall, Chicago, IL), 7–24.Google Scholar
  • The Sentencing Project (2018) Report to the United Nations on racial disparities in the U.S. criminal justice system. Retrieved from https://www.sentencingproject.org/publications/un-report-on-racial-disparities/Google Scholar
  • Thompson J (1967) Organizations in action (McGraw-Hill, New York).Google Scholar
  • Tillyer R, Engel RS (2013) The impact of drivers’ race, gender, and age during traffic stops: Assessing interaction terms and the social conditioning model. Crime Delinq. 59(3):369–395.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Toch H (2002) Stress in policing (American Psychological Association, Washington, DC)CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Tolbert PS, Andrews AO, Simons T (1995) The effects of group proportions on group dynamics. In: Jackson SE, Ruderman MN, eds., Diversity in work teams: Research paradigms for a changing workplace. (American Psychological Association, Washington, DC), 131–159.Google Scholar
  • Tomaskovic-Devey D (1993) Gender and Racial Inequality at Work: The Sources and Consequences of Job Segregation (ILR Press, Ithaca, NY)CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Tuch SA (1987) Urbanism, region, and tolerance revisited: The case of racial prejudice. Am. Sociol. Rev. 52(4):504–510.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • United States Department of Justice (2014). Community-oriented policing defined. Community Oriented Policing Services, U.S. Department of Justice, Washington, DC Retrieved from https://cops.usdoj.gov/RIC/Publications/cops-p157-pub.pdfGoogle Scholar
  • United States Department of Justice. Federal Bureau of Investigation National Incident-Based Reporting System (1997 2000 2003 2007 2013). Ann Arbor, MI: Inter-university Consortium for Political and Social Research [distributor] 2009-07-16. https://doi.org/10.3886/ICPSR02793.v2Google Scholar
  • United States Department of Justice Office of Justice Programs. Bureau of Justice Statistics. Law Enforcement Management and Administrative Statistics (LEMAS) (1997 2000 2003 2007 2013). Ann Arbor, MI: Inter-university Consortium for Political and Social Research [distributor] 2008-12-04. https://doi.org/10.3886/ICPSR02700.v1Google Scholar
  • Voigt R, Camp NP, Prabhakaran V, Hamilton WL, Hetey RC, Griffiths CM, Jurgens D, Eberhardt JL (2017) Language from police body camera footage shows racial disparities in officer respect. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 114(25):6521–6526.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Weisburd D, Majmundar MK, eds. Proactive Policing: Effects on Crime and Communities (National Academies Press, Washington, DC).Google Scholar
  • Weitzer R (2000) Racialized policing: Residents’ perception in three neighborhoods. Law Soc. Rev. 34(1):129–156.CrossrefGoogle Scholar
  • Wilk SL, Makarius EE (2015) Choosing the company you keep: Racial relational demography outside and inside of work. Organ. Sci. 26(5):1316–1331.LinkGoogle Scholar
  • Williams KY, O’Reilly CA III (1998) Demography and diversity in organizations: A review of 40 years of research. Res. Organ. Behav. 20:77–140.Google Scholar
  • Wright SC, Brody SM, Aron A (2005) Intergroup contact: Still our best hope for improving intergroup relations. Crandall CS, Schaller M, eds., Social Psychology of Prejudice: Historical and Contemporary issues. Lewinian Press, Seattle), 2005:115–142.Google Scholar
  • Zatzick CD, Elvira MM, Cohen LE (2003) When is more better? The effects of racial composition on voluntary turnover. Organ. Sci. 14(5):483–496.LinkGoogle Scholar
  • Zheng NT, Mukamel DB, Caprio T, Cai S, Temkin-Greener H (2011) Racial disparities in in-hospital death and hospice use among nursing home residents at the end-of-life. Medical Care 49(11):992–998.Google Scholar
INFORMS site uses cookies to store information on your computer. Some are essential to make our site work; Others help us improve the user experience. By using this site, you consent to the placement of these cookies. Please read our Privacy Statement to learn more.