Organizational Reference Groups: A Missing Perspective on Social Context
Published Online:1 Feb 2006https://doi.org/10.1287/orsc.1050.0173
References
- Scanning the Business Environment (1967) (MacMillan, New York) Google Scholar
- Women on the verge of a breakthrough: Networking among entrepreneurs in the United States and Italy. Entrepreneurship Regional Development (1989) 1:339–356Crossref, Google Scholar
- Demography and design: Predictors of new produce team performance. Organ. Sci. (1992) 3:321–341Link, Google Scholar
- The Boundaryless Career: A New Employment Principle for a New Organizational Era (1996) (Oxford University Press, New York) Crossref, Google Scholar
- Expectation States Theory: A Theoretical Research Program (1974) (Winthrop Publishers, Cambridge, MA) Google Scholar
- Informant accuracy in social network data II. Human Comm. Res. (1977) 4:3–18Crossref, Google Scholar
- Bringing strong ties back in: Indirect ties, network bridges, and job searches in China. Amer. Sociological Rev. (1997) 62:366–385Crossref, Google Scholar
- Exchange and Power in Social Life (1964) (John Wiley, New York) Google Scholar
- Inequality and Heterogeneity: A Primitive Theory of Social Structure (1977) (The Free Press, New York) Google Scholar
- Men's and women's networks: A study of interaction patterns and influence in an organization. Acad. Management J. (1985) 28:327–343Crossref, Google Scholar
- Forgetting in the recall-based elicitation of personal and social networks. Soc. Networks (2000) 22:29–43Crossref, Google Scholar
- Forgetting of friends and its effects on measuring friendship networks. Soc. Networks (1999) 21:361–373Crossref, Google Scholar
- Toward a Structural Theory of Action (1982) (Academic Press, New York) Crossref, Google Scholar
- Structural Holes: The Social Structure of Competition (1992) (Harvard University, Cambridge, MA) Crossref, Google Scholar
- The contingent value of social capital. Admin. Sci. Quart. (1997) 42:339–365Crossref, Google Scholar
- Name generators in surveys of personal networks. Soc. Networks (1991) 13:203–221Crossref, Google Scholar
- Assessing the relationship between industry characteristics and organizational culture: How different can you be? Acad. Management J. (1994) 37:522–553Crossref, Google Scholar
- Regression Analysis by Example (1991) (John Wiley, New York) Google Scholar
- For better or worse: The impact of upward social comparison on self-evaluations. Psych. Bull. (1996) 119:51–69Crossref, Google Scholar
- Relative Deprivation and Working Women (1982) (Oxford University Press, New York) Google Scholar
- The decline and fall of the conglomerate firm in the 1980's: The deinstitutionalization of an organizational form. Amer. Soc. Rev. (1994) 59(4):547–570Crossref, Google Scholar
- Contacts and influence. Soc. Networks (1978) 1:5–51Crossref, Google Scholar
- Playing follow the leader: Status-determining traits in relation to collective efficacy across cultures. Organ. Behavior Human Decision Processes (1999) 80(3):192–212Crossref, Google Scholar
- The effects of organizational demographics and social identity on relationships among professional women. Admin. Sci. Quart. (1994) 39:203–238Crossref, Google Scholar
- Short-term projects and emergent careers: Evidence from Hollywood. Amer. J. Sociology (1987) 92(4):879–909Crossref, Google Scholar
- The focused organization of social ties. Amer. J. Sociology (1981) 86:1015–1035Crossref, Google Scholar
- Social structure determinants of similarity among associates. Amer. Sociological Rev. (1982) 47:797–801Crossref, Google Scholar
- A theory of social comparison processes. Human Relations (1954) 7:117–140Crossref, Google Scholar
- Social Cognition (1991) 2nd ed.(McGraw-Hill, New York) Crossref, Google Scholar
- An examination of the referents used in the evaluation of pay. Organ. Behavior Human Performance (1974) 12:170–195Crossref, Google Scholar
- The strength of weak ties. Amer. J. Sociology (1973) 78:1360–1380Crossref, Google Scholar
- , Nohria N., Eccles R. G. Problems of explanation in economic sociology. Networks and Organizations: Structure, Form, and Action (1992) (Harvard Business School, Boston, MA) 25–56Google Scholar
- Getting a Job: A Study of Contacts and Careers (1974/1995) (Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA) Google Scholar
- Upper echelons: The organization as a reflection of its top managers. Acad. Management Rev. (1984) 9:193–206Crossref, Google Scholar
- Explorations into the meaning of social network interview data. Soc. Networks (1984) 6:341–371Crossref, Google Scholar
- , Ishida T., Isbister K. Examining community in the digital neighborhood: Early results from Canada's wired suburb. Digital Cities: Technologies, Experiences, and Future Perspectives (2000) (Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Germany) 194–208Crossref, Google Scholar
- Social identity and self-categorization processes in organizational contexts. Acad. Management Rev. (2000) 25:121–140Crossref, Google Scholar
- Homophily and differential returns: Sex differences in network structure and access in an advertising firm. Admin. Sci. Quart. (1992) 37(3):422–447Crossref, Google Scholar
- Race, opportunity, and diversity of social circles in managerial networks. Acad. Management J. (1995) 38:673–703Crossref, Google Scholar
- Power, social influence, and sense making: Effects of network centrality and proximity on employee perceptions. Admin. Sci. Quart. (1993) 38:277–303Crossref, Google Scholar
- Zooming in and out: Connecting individuals and collectivities at the frontiers of organizational network research. Organ. Sci. (2005) 16(4):359–371Link, Google Scholar
- , Guzzo R. A., Salas E. Understanding the dynamics of diversity in decision-making teams. Team Decision-Making Effectiveness in Organizations (1995) (Jossey-Bass, San Francisco, CA) Google Scholar
- The interactive effect of leader-member exchange and communication frequency on performance ratings. J. Appl. Psych. (2003) 88(4):764–772Crossref, Google Scholar
- Men and Women of the Corporation (1977) (Basic Books, New York) Google Scholar
- , Nohria N., Eccles R. G. The strength of strong ties: The importance of Philos in organizations. Networks and Organizations: Structure, Form, and Action (1992) (Harvard Business School, Boston, MA) Google Scholar
- Mentoring alternatives: The role of peer relationships in career development. Acad. Management J. (1985) 28(1):110–132Crossref, Google Scholar
- Personal and situational determinants of referent choice. Acad. Management Rev. (1992) 17:212–237Crossref, Google Scholar
- Demographic diversity and faultlines: The compositional dynamics of organizational groups. Acad. Management Rev. (1998) 23(2):325–340Crossref, Google Scholar
- Age grading: The implicit organizational timetable. J. Organ. Behavior (1984) 5:23–35Crossref, Google Scholar
- At the crossroads: A multiple-level explanation of individual attainment. Organ. Sci. (1990) 1:65–86Link, Google Scholar
- The black box of organizational demography. Organ. Sci. (1997) 8(1):1–22Link, Google Scholar
- , Peiperl M., Gunz H. Structure, norms and outcomes: Organizational demography and individual careers. Handbook of Career Studies(Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks, CA) . ForthcomingGoogle Scholar
- , Berger M., Abel T., Page C. H. Friendship as a social process: A substantive and methodological analysis. Freedom and Control in Modern Society (1954) (Van Nostrand, New York) 18–66Google Scholar
- , Masters J. C., Smith W. P. Social comparison and outcome evaluation in group contexts. Social Comparison, Justice, and Relative Deprivation: Theoretical, Empirical, and Policy Perspectives (1987) (Lawrence Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ) 105–127Google Scholar
- Work and friendship ties in organizations: A comparative analysis of relational networks. Admin. Sci. Quart. (1979) 24:181–199Crossref, Google Scholar
- Are respondents more likely to list alters with certain characteristics? Implications for name generator data. Soc. Networks (2004) 26:289–307Crossref, Google Scholar
- Network studies of social influence. Soc. Methods Res. (1993) 22:127–151Crossref, Google Scholar
- Cultures in Organizations: Three Perspectives (1992) (Oxford University, Oxford, UK) Crossref, Google Scholar
- Eliciting representative samples of personal networks. Soc. Networks (1997) 19:303–323Crossref, Google Scholar
- Trait salience in the spontaneous self-concept. J. Personality Soc. Psych. (1976) 33:743–754Crossref, Google Scholar
- Birds of a feather: Homophily in social networks. Annual Rev. Sociology (2001) 27:415–444Crossref, Google Scholar
- At the margins: A distinctiveness approach to the social identity and social networks of underrepresented groups. Acad. Management J. (1998) 41:441–452Crossref, Google Scholar
- , Merton R. K. Contributions to the theory of reference group behavior. Social Theory and Social Structure (1968) (Free Press, New York) 279–334Google Scholar
- Human Inference: Strategies and Shortcomings of Social Judgment (1980) (Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ) Google Scholar
- How high is up? Calibrating social comparison in the real world. J. Personality Soc. Psych. (1985) 48:624–634Crossref, Google Scholar
- Leverage the customer base: Creating competitive advantage through knowledge management. Management Sci. (2001) 47(11):1441–1456Link, Google Scholar
- Relations between situational factors and the comparative referents used by employees. Acad. Management J. (1986) 29:599–606Crossref, Google Scholar
- , Staw B. M., Cummings L. L. The motivational basis of organizational citizenship behavior. Research in Organizational Behavior (1990) (JAI, Greenwich, CT) 43–72Google Scholar
- When we talk about American ethnic groups: What do we mean? Amer. Psych. (1996) 51(9):918–927Crossref, Google Scholar
- Organizational dress as a symbol of multilayered social identities. Acad. Management J. (1997) 40:862–898Crossref, Google Scholar
- Climate and culture: Interaction and qualitative differences in organizational meanings. J. Appl. Psych. (1990) 75:668–681Crossref, Google Scholar
- The social construction of status value: Gender and other nominal characteristics. Soc. Forces (1991) 70(2):367–386Crossref, Google Scholar
- Psychological and implied contracts in organizations. Employee Responsibilities Rights J. (1989) 2:121–139Crossref, Google Scholar
- New hire perceptions of their own and their employer’s obligations: A study of psychological contracts. J. Organ. Behavior (1990) 11:389–400Crossref, Google Scholar
- A social information processing approach to job attitudes and task design. Admin. Sci. Quart. (1978) 23:224–253Crossref, Google Scholar
- , Muthén B. O., Muthén L. K. A scaled difference chi-square test statistic for moment structure analysis. Chi-Square Difference Testing Using the Satorra-Bentler Scaled Chi-Square (1999) . http://www.stat.ucla.edu/papers/preprints/260/Google Scholar
- Organizational Culture and Leadership (1992) 2nd ed.(Jossey-Bass, San Francisco, CA) Google Scholar
- Organizations: Rational, Natural, and Open Systems (1987) 2nd ed.(Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ) Google Scholar
- Who are employees' social referents? Using a network perspective to determine referent others. Acad. Management J. (1998) 41:249–268Crossref, Google Scholar
- Reference groups as perspectives. Amer. J. Sociology (1955) 60:562–569Crossref, Google Scholar
- Work attitudes and decisions as a function of manager age and employee age. J. Appl. Psych. (2003) 88(3):529–537Crossref, Google Scholar
- , Doob A., Regan D. T. Reference groups, membership groups, and attitude change. Readings in Experimental Social Psychology (1971) (Appleton-Century-Crofts (Educational Division of Meredith Corporation), New York) 391–398Google Scholar
- , Rosenberg M., Turner R. H. Reference groups and social evaluation. Social Psychology and Sociological Perspectives (1981) (Transaction)66–93Google Scholar
- Perception and reactions to inequity as a function of social comparison referents and hierarchical levels. J. Appl. Soc. Psych. (1994) 24:557–565Crossref, Google Scholar
- Measuring inter-racial friendships. Soc. Sci. Res. (2002) 31(4):576–593Crossref, Google Scholar
- , England P. You are who you know: A network approach to gender. Theory on Gender/Feminism (1993) (Aldine de Gruyter, New York) 223–251Google Scholar
- Job market signaling. Quart. J. Econom. (1973) 87(3):355–374Crossref, Google Scholar
- Differentiation Between Social Groups: Studies in the Social Psychology of Intergroup Relations (1978) (Academic Press, London, UK) Google Scholar
- Upward maintenance tactics in supervisory mentoring and nonmentoring relationships. Acad. Management J. (1995) 38(4):1191–1205Crossref, Google Scholar
- , Abrams D., Hogg M. A. Group membership, social identity, and attitudes. Social Identity and Social Cognition (1999) (Blackwell, Oxford, UK) 280–314Google Scholar
- Cracks in diversity research: The effects of diversity faultlines on conflict and performance. Group Decision Negotiation (2003) 12:217–241Crossref, Google Scholar
- The Child in America: Behavior Problems and Programs (1928) (Alfred A. Knopf, New York) Google Scholar
- Demographic Differences in Organizations: Current Research and Future Directions (1999) (Lexington Books, Lanham, MD) Google Scholar
- Social categorization and the self-concept: A social cognitive theory of group behavior. Adv. Group Processes (1985) 2:77–121Google Scholar
- The Psychology of the Social Self (1999) (Lawrence Erlbaum, Mahwah, NJ) Google Scholar
- Overall job satisfaction: How good are single-item measures? J. Appl. Psych. (1997) 82(2):247–252Crossref, Google Scholar
- Social comparison in everyday life. J. Personality Soc. Psych. (1992) 62(5):760–773Crossref, Google Scholar
- Factors determining the choice of a comparison other. J. Experiment. Soc. Psych. (1969) 5:219–232Crossref, Google Scholar
- Demography and diversity in organizations: A review of 40 years of research. Res. Organ. Behavior (1998) 20:77–140Google Scholar
- Theory and research concerning social comparisons of personal attributes. Psych. Bull. (1989) 106:231–248Crossref, Google Scholar
- What is social comparison and how should we study it? Personality Soc. Psych. Bull. (1996) 22:520–537Crossref, Google Scholar
- Social cognitive theory of organizational management. Acad. Management Rev. (1989) 14:361–384Crossref, Google Scholar
- Organizational demography: The differential effects of age and tenure distributions on technical communication. Acad. Management J. (1989) 32:353–376Crossref, Google Scholar

