Accounting for the Gap: A Firm Study Manipulating Organizational Accountability and Transparency in Pay Decisions

References

• Acker J (1990) Hierarchies, jobs, bodies: A theory of gendered organizations. Gender Soc. 4:139–158.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Anderson MJ (2011a) Firms must employ transparency to eliminate hidden bias against female leaders. Glass Hammer (April 27) http://www.theglasshammer.com/news/ 2011/04/27/firms-must-employ-transparency-to-eliminate-hidden-bias-against-female-leaders/.Google Scholar
• Anderson MJ (2011b) 6 ways transparency can boost women in leadership in the financial services. Glass Hammer (March 31) http://www.theglasshammer.com/news/2011/03/31/6-ways-transparency-can-boost-women-in-leadership-in-the-financial-services/.Google Scholar
• Arthur W Jr, Doverspike D (2005) Achieving diversity and reducing discrimination in the workplace through human resource management practices: Implications of research and theory for staffing, training, and rewarding performance. Dipboye RL, Colella A, eds. Discrimination at Work: The Psychological and Organizational Bases (Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, NJ), 305–328.Google Scholar
• Bailyn L (2010) Putting gender on the table. Kaiser D, ed. Becoming MIT: Moments of Decision (MIT Press, Cambridge, MA), 65–85.Google Scholar
• Bamberger P, Belogolovsky E (2010) The impact of pay secrecy on individual task performance. Personnel Psych. 965–996.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Bandiera O, Barankay I, Rasul I (2007) Incentives for managers and inequality among workers: Evidence from a firm-level experiment. Quart. J. Econom. 122:729–773.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Baron JN (1984) Organizational perspectives on stratification. Annual Rev. Sociol. 10:37–69.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Baron JN, Bielby WT (1980) Bringing the firms back in: Stratification, segmentation, and the organization of work. Amer. Sociol. Rev. 45:737–765.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Barsh J, Yee L (2013) Unlocking the full potential of women in the U.S. economy. Report, McKinsey & Company, Washington, DC. http://www.mckinsey.com/Client_Service/Organization/ Latest_thinking/Unlocking_the_full_potential.aspx.Google Scholar
• Bartol KM, Martin DC (1989) Effects of dependence, dependency threats, and pay secrecy on managerial pay allocations. J. Appl. Psych. 74:105–13.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Beckman CM, Phillips DJ (2005) Interorganizational determinants of promotion: Client leadership and the attainment of women attorneys. Amer. Sociol. Rev. 70:678–701.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Bellemare C, Shearer B (2009) Gift giving and worker productivity: Evidence from a firm-level experiment. Games Econom. Behav. 67:233–244.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Bergsteiner H (2012) Accountability Theory Meets Accountability Practice (Emerald Group Publishing, Bingley, UK).Google Scholar
• Bernstein ES (2012) The transparency paradox: A role for privacy in organizational learning and operational control. Admin. Sci. Quart. 57:181–216.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Bielby WT, Baron JN (1986a) Men and women at work: Sex segregation and statistical discrimination. Amer. J. Sociol. 91:759–799.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Bielby WT, Baron JN (1986b) Undoing discrimination: Job integration and comparable worth. Bose C, Spitz G, eds. Ingredients for Women’s Employment Policy (SUNY Press, Albany, NY), 211–229.Google Scholar
• Biernat M, Kobrynowicz D (1997) Gender- and race-based standards of competence: Lower minimum standards but higher standards for devalued groups. J. Personality Soc. Psych. 72:544–557.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Bird SR (2011) Unsettling universities’ incongruous, gendered bureaucratic structures: A case-study approach. Gender, Work, Occupations 18:202–230.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Brief AP, Butz RM, Deitch EA (2005) Organizations as reflections of their environments: The case of race composition. Dipboye RL, Colella A, eds. Discrimination at Work: The Psychological and Organizational Bases (Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, NJ), 119–148.Google Scholar
• Bovens M (2007) Analyzing and assessing accountability: A conceptual framework. Eur. Law J. 13:447–468.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Cañas KA, Sondak H (2008) Opportunities and Challenges of Workplace Diversity: Theory, Cases, and Exercises (Pearson/Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ).Google Scholar
• Castilla EJ (2005) Social networks and employee performance in a call center. Amer. J. Sociol. 110:1243–1283.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Castilla EJ (2007) Dynamic Analysis in the Social Sciences (Academic Press, San Diego).Google Scholar
• Castilla EJ (2008) Gender, race, and meritocracy in organizational careers. Amer. J. Sociol. 113:1479–1526.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Castilla EJ (2011) Bringing managers back in: Managerial influences on workplace inequality. Amer. Sociol. Rev. 76:667–694.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Castilla EJ, Benard S (2010) The paradox of meritocracy in organizations. Admin. Sci. Quart. 55:543–576.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Colella A, Paetzold RL, Zardkoohi A, Wesson MJ (2007) Exposing pay secrecy. Acad. Management Rev. 32:55–71.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Cook C, Watters M (1998) The impact of organizational form on gendered labor markets in engineering and law. Sociol. Rev. 46:314–339.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Cox DR (1972) Regression models and life-tables. J. Roy. Statist. Soc. Ser. B 34:187–220.Google Scholar
• Cox DR (1975) Partial likelihood. Biometrika 62:269–276.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Crosby F (1982) Relative Deprivation and Working Women (Oxford University Press, New York).Google Scholar
• Crosby F (1984) Relative deprivation in organizational settings. Res. Organ. Behav. 6:51–93.Google Scholar
• Crosby F, Clayton S, Alksnis O, Hemker K (1986) Cognitive biases in the perception of discrimination: The importance of format. Sex Roles 14:637–646.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Dencker JC (2008) Corporate restructuring and sex differences in promotion. Amer. Sociol. Rev. 73:455–476.Crossref, Google Scholar
• DiNardo J (2008) Natural experiments and quasi-natural experiments. Durlauf SN, Blume LE, eds. The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics Online, 2nd ed. (Palgrave Macmillan, Basingstoke, UK). Accessed January 1, 2015, http://dx.doi.org/10.1057/9780230226203.1162.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Dobbin F (2009) Inventing Equal Opportunity (Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ).Crossref, Google Scholar
• Dobbin F, Kelly E (2007) How to stop harassment: The professional construction of legal compliance in organizations. Amer. J. Sociol. 112:1203–1243.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Dobbin F, Sutton JR, Meyer JW, Scott WR (1993) Equal opportunity law and the construction of internal labor markets. Amer. J. Sociol. 99:396–427.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Edelman LB (1990) Legal environments and organizational governance: The expansion of due process in the American workplace. Amer. J. Sociol. 95:1401–1440.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Edelman LB, Petterson SM (1999) Symbols and substance in organizations’ response to civil rights law. Res. Soc. Stratification Mobility 17:107–135.Google Scholar
• Elvira MM, Graham ME (2002) Not just a formality: Pay system formalization and sex-related earnings effects. Organ. Sci. 13:601–617.Link, Google Scholar
• Elvira M, Saporta I (2001) How does collective bargaining affect the gender pay gap? Work Occupations 28:469–490.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Ely RJ, Thomas DA (2001) Cultural diversity at work: The effects of diversity perspectives on work group processes and outcomes. Admin. Sci. Quart. 46:229–273.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Esen E (2005) 2005 workplace diversity practices. Survey report, Society for Human Resource Management, Alexandria, VA.Google Scholar
• Fernandez RM (2001) Skill-biased technological change and wage inequality: Evidence from a plant retooling. Amer. J. Sociol. 107:273–320.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Fernandez RM, Mors ML (2008) Competing for jobs: Labor queues and gender sorting in the hiring process. Soc. Sci. Res. 37:1061–1080.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Ferraz C, Finan F (2008) Exposing corrupt politicians: The effects of Brazil’s publicly released audits on electoral outcomes. Quart. J. Econom. 123:703–745.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Flynn G (1996) Firm’s diversity efforts even the playing field. Personnel J. 75:56.Google Scholar
• Foddy M, Smithson M (1999) Can gender inequalities be eliminated? Soc. Psych. Quart. 62:307–324.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Foschi M (1989) Status characteristics, standards, and attributions. Berger J, Zelditch M, Anderson B, eds. Sociological Theories in Progress: New Formulations (Sage, Newbury Park, CA), 58–72.Google Scholar
• Foschi M (1992) Gender and double standards for competence. Ridgeway CL, ed. Gender Interaction and Inequality (Springer-Verlag, New York), 181–207.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Foschi M, Foddy M (1988) Standards, performances, and the formation of self-other expectations. Webster M Jr, Foschi M, eds. Status Generalization: New Theory and Research (Stanford University Press, Stanford, CA), 248–260.Google Scholar
• Grant RW, Keohane RO (2005) Accountability and abuses of power in world politics. Amer. Political Sci. Rev. 99:29–43.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Harrison GW, List JA (2004) Field experiments. J. Econom. Literature 42:1009–1055.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Hartmann H (2013) Pass the Paycheck Fairness Act. New York Times (March 31) http://www.nytimes.com/roomfordebate/2013/03/31/why-has-salary-parity-still-not-happened/pass-the-paycheck-fairness-act.Google Scholar
• Hernandez TJ (2012) Racial Subordination in Latin America: The Role of the State, Customary Law, and the New Civil Rights Response (Cambridge University Press, New York).Crossref, Google Scholar
• Hernandez TJ (2013) Legally mandate wage transparency. New York Times (March 31) http://www.nytimes.com/roomfordebate/2013/03/31/why-has-salary-parity-still-not-happened/legally-mandate-wage-transparency.Google Scholar
• Hollyer JR, Rosendorff BP, Vreeland JR (2014) Measuring transparency. Political Anal. 22:413–434.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Hopkins N, Bailyn L, Gibson L, Hammonds E (2002) Reports of the committees on the status of women faculty. Report, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA. http://web.mit.edu/faculty/reports/pdf/overview.pdf.Google Scholar
• Indiviglio D (2011) The case for making wages public: Better pay, better workers. Atlantic (July 20) http://www.theatlantic.com/business/archive/2011/07/the-case-for-making-wages-public-better-pay-better-workers/242238/.Google Scholar
• Jirjahn U, Stephan G (2004) Gender, piece rates and wages: Evidence from matched employer–employee data. Cambridge J. Econom. 28:683–704.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Jovanovic B (1979) Job matching and the theory of turnover. J. Political Econom. 87:972–990.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Kalev A (2009) Cracking the glass cages? Restructuring and ascriptive inequality at work. Amer. J. Sociol. 114:1591–1643.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Kalev A (2014) How you downsize is who you downsize: Biased formalization, accountability, and managerial diversity. Amer. Sociol. Rev. 79:109–135.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Kalev A, Dobbin F, Kelly E (2006) Best practices or best guesses? Assessing the efficacy of corporate affirmative action and diversity policies. Amer. Sociol. Rev. 71:589–617.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Kaufmann D, Bellver A (2005) Transparenting transparency: Initial empirics and policy applications. Working paper, World Bank, Washington, DC. http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.808664.Google Scholar
• Kelly EL, Moen P, Tranby E (2011) Changing workplaces to reduce work-family conflict: Schedule control in a white-collar organization. Amer. Sociol. Rev. 76:265–290.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Kidder LH, Bellettirie G, Cohn ES (1977) Secret ambitions and public performances. J. Experiment. Soc. Psych. 13:70–80.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Kolstad I, Wiig A (2009) Is transparency the key to reducing corruption in resource-rich countries? World Development 37:521–532.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Konrad AM (2006) Cases in Gender and Diversity in Organizations, Ivey Casebook Series (Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA).Google Scholar
• Lawler EE III (1971) Pay and Organizational Effectiveness: A Psychological View (McGraw-Hill, New York).Google Scholar
• Lawler EE III (1981) Pay and Development (Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA).Google Scholar
• Lederman D, Loayza N, Soares RR (2005) Accountability and corruption: Political institutions matter. Econom. Politics 17:1–35.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Lerner JS, Tetlock PE (1999) Accounting for the effects of accountability. Psych. Bull. 125:255–275.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Leventhal GS (1976) The distribution of rewards and resources in groups and organizations. Berkowitz L, Waslster E, eds. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology (Academic Press, New York), 92–131.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Leventhal GS, Karuza J Jr, Fry WR (1980) Beyond fairness: A theory of allocation preferences. Mikula G, ed. Justice and Social Interaction: Experimental and Theoretical Contributions from Psychological Research (Springer-Verlag, New York), 167–218.Google Scholar
• Leventhal GS, Michaels JW, Sanford C (1972) Inequity and interpersonal conflict: Reward allocation and secrecy about reward as methods of preventing conflict. J. Personality Soc. Psych. 23:88–102.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Levitt SD, List JA (2009) Field experiments in economics: The past, the present, and the future. Eur. Econom. Rev. 53:1–18.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Liang K-Y, Zeger SL (1986) Longitudinal data analysis using generalized linear models. Biometrika 73:13–22.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Lytle T (2014) Making pay public. HR Magazine 59(9):25–30.Google Scholar
• Madden JF (2012) Performance-support bias and the gender pay gap among stockbrokers. Gender Soc. 26:488–518.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Major B, Adams JB (1983) Role of gender, interpersonal orientation, and self-presentation in distributive-justice behavior. J. Personality Soc. Psych. 45:598–608.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Major B, Gramzow RH, McCoy SK, Levin S, Schmader T, Sidanius J (2002) Perceiving personal discrimination: The role of group status and legitimizing ideology. J. Personality Soc. Psych. 82:269–282.Crossref, Google Scholar
• McCracken DM (2000) Winning the talent war for women: Sometimes it takes a revolution. Harvard Bus. Rev. 78(6):159–167.Google Scholar
• Moen P, Kelly EL, Chermack K (2009) Learning from a natural experiment: Studying a corporate work-time policy initiative. Crouter AC, Booth A, eds. Work-Life Policies That Make a Real Difference for Individuals, Families, and Organizations (Urban Institute Press, Washington, DC), 97–131.Google Scholar
• Moen P, Kelly E, Hill R (2011) Does enhancing work-time control and flexibility reduce turnover? A naturally occurring experiment. Soc. Problems 58:69–98.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Moskos CC, Butler JS (1996) All That We Can Be: Black Leadership and Racial Integration the Army Way (Basic Books, New York).Google Scholar
• Mulgan R (2000) “Accountability”: An ever expanding concept? Public Admin. 78:555–573.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Petersen T, Saporta I (2004) The opportunity structure for discrimination. Amer. J. Sociol. 109:852–902.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Pfeffer J (1981) Power in Organizations (Pitman, Marshfield, MA).Google Scholar
• Phillips DJ (2005) Organization genealogies and the persistence of gender inequality: The case of Silicon Valley law firms. Admin. Sci. Quart. 50:440–472.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Price JL (1977) The Study of Turnover (Iowa State University Press, Ames).Google Scholar
• Ramachandran G (2012) Pay transparency. Penn State Law Rev. 116:1043–1079.Google Scholar
• Ramarajan L, McGinn KL, Kolb DM (2012) A coevolution in activities and beliefs: The outside-inside story of gender and work. HBS Organizational Behavior Unit Working Paper 13-051, Harvard Business School, Boston. http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2184439.Google Scholar
• Reskin BF (1993) Sex segregation in the workplace. Annual Rev. Sociol. 19:241–270.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Reskin BF (2003) Including mechanisms in our models of ascriptive inequality: 2002 Presidential Address. Amer. Sociol. Rev. 68:1–21.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Reskin BF, McBrier DB (2000) Why not ascription? Organizations’ employment of male and female managers. Amer. Sociol. Rev. 65:210–233.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Rissing BA, Castilla EJ (2014) House of green cards: Statistical or preference-based inequality in the employment of foreign nationals. Amer. Sociol. Rev. 79:1226–1255.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Shwed U, Kalev A (2014) Are referrals more productive or more likable? Social networks and the evaluation of merit. Amer. Behav. Scientist 58:288–308.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Stainback K, Tomaskovic-Devey D, Skaggs S (2010) Organizational approaches to inequality: Inertia, relative power, and environments. Annual Rev. Sociol. 36:225–247.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Stinchcombe AL (2001) When Formality Works: Authority and Abstraction in Law and Organizations (Chicago University Press, Chicago).Google Scholar
• Sturm S (2001) Second-generation employment discrimination: A structural approach. Columbia Law Rev. 101:459–568.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Tetlock PE (1983a) Accountability and complexity of thought. J. Personality Soc. Psych. 45:74–83.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Tetlock PE (1983b) Accountability and the perseverance of first impressions. Soc. Psych. Quart. 46:285–292.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Tetlock PE (1985) Accountability: A social check on the fundamental attribution error. Soc. Psych. Quart. 48:227–236.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Tetlock PE (1992) The impact of accountability on judgment and choice: Toward a social contingency model. Zanna M, ed. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, Vol. 25 (Academic Press, New York), 331–376.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Tetlock PE, Kim JI (1987) Accountability and judgment in a personality prediction task. J. Personality Soc. Psych. 52:700–709.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Tetlock PE, Mitchell G (2009) Implicit bias and accountability systems: What must organizations do to prevent discrimination? Res. Organ. Behav. 29:3–38.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Tetlock PE, Skitka L, Boettger R (1989) Social and cognitive strategies for coping with accountability: Conformity, complexity, and bolstering. J. Personality Soc. Psych. 57:632–640.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Thomas DA (2004) Diversity as strategy. Harvard Bus. Rev. 82(9):98–108.Google Scholar
• Tomaskovic-Devey D (1993) Gender and Racial Inequality at Work: The Sources and Consequences of Job Segregation (ILR Press, Ithaca, NY).Crossref, Google Scholar
• Tuma NB (1976) Rewards, resources, and the rate of mobility: A nonstationary multivariate stochastic model. Amer. Sociol. Rev. 41:330–338.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Vance A (2008) Crisis hits tech sector with layoffs as sales slump. New York Times (November 14) http://www.nytimes.com/2008/11/15/technology/companies/15sun.html.Google Scholar
• Wagner DG, Ford RS, Ford TW (1986) Can gender inequalities be reduced? Amer. Sociol. Rev. 51:47–61.Crossref, Google Scholar
• Weigold MF, Schlenker BR (1991) Accountability and risk taking. Personality Soc. Psych. Bull. 17:25–29.Crossref, Google Scholar