Stretch Goals and the Distribution of Organizational Performance
Published Online:24 May 2017https://doi.org/10.1287/orsc.2017.1131
References
- (2007) A behavioral theory of the firm—40 years and counting: Introduction and impact. Organ. Sci. 18(3):337–349.Link, Google Scholar
- (1992) Management flight simulators and organizational learning: Some experimental evidence. Eur. J. Oper. Res. 59(1):167–182.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (1982) Risk seeking by troubled firms. Sloan Management Rev. 23(4):33–42.Google Scholar
- (2012) The liability of leading: Battling aspiration and survival goals in the Jeopardy! Tournament of Champions. Organ. Sci. 23(4):1100–1113.Link, Google Scholar
- (1991) Testing a causal model of corporate risk taking and performance. Acad. Management J. 34(1):37–59.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2001) Risk in strategic management research. Hitt M, Freeman R, Harrison J, eds. The Blackwell Handbook of Strategic Management (Blackwell Publishers, Malden, MA), 259–288.Google Scholar
- (1994) Built to Last: Successful Habits of Visionary Companies, 3rd ed. (Random House Business, London).Google Scholar
- (1963) A Behavioral Theory of the Firm (Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ).Google Scholar
- (2012) In Praise Of Stretch Goals. Forbes. Accessed October 30, 2014, http://www.forbes.com/sites/stevedenning/2012/04/23/in-praise-of-stretch-goals/.Google Scholar
- (2012) Top performers are not the most impressive when extreme performance indicates unreliability. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 109(24):9331–9336.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2001) Adaptation as information restriction: The hot stove effect. Organ. Sci. 12(5):523–538.Link, Google Scholar
- (1989) Goals, strategy development, and task performance: Some limits on the efficacy of goal setting. J. Appl. Psych. 74(1):24–33.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2009) Hoping for A to Z while rewarding only A: Complex organizations and multiple goals. Organ. Sci. 20(1):4–21.Link, Google Scholar
- (2012) Organizational learning as credit assignment: A model and two experiments. Organ. Sci. 23(6):1717–1732.Link, Google Scholar
- (1988) Attitudes toward risk and the risk-return paradox: Prospect theory explanations. Acad. Management J. 31(1):85–106.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (1968) Market growth as influenced by capital investment. Indust. Management Rev. 9(2):83–105.Google Scholar
- (1975) Planning and goal creation. Collected Papers of Jay W. Forrester (Wright Allen Press, Cambridge, MA), 167–174.Google Scholar
- (2010) Just say no to Wall Street: Putting a stop to the earnings game. J. Appl. Corporate Finance 22(1):59–63.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2008) On the perception and operationalization of risk perception. Judgment Decision Making 3(4):317–324.Google Scholar
- (2011) Mental models, decision rules, and performance heterogeneity. Strategic Management J. 32(6):569–594.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2015) Time-efficient algorithms for robust estimators of location, scale, symmetry, and tail heaviness. Stata J. 15(1):77–94.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (1992) Model-supported case studies for management education. Eur. J. Oper. Res. 59(1): 151–166.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (1998) Performance, aspirations, and risky organizational change. Admin. Sci. Quart. 43(1):58–86.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2003) Investment and the behavioral theory of the firm: Evidence from shipbuilding. Indust. Corporate Change 12(5): 1051–1076.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (1993) Strategy as stretch and leverage. Harvard Bus. Rev. 71(March–April):75–84.Google Scholar
- (1987) Goal commitment and the goal-setting process: Problems, prospects, and proposals for future research. J. Appl. Psych. 72(2):212–220.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (1989) Investigation of the construct validity of a self-report measure of goal commitment. J. Appl. Psych. 74(6):951–956.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2011) Adaptive aspirations: Performance consequences of risk preferences at extremes and alternative reference groups. Strategic Management J. 32(13):1426–1436.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2012) Self-enhancement and learning from performance feedback. Acad. Management Rev. 37(2):211–231.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2004) Using stretch goals to promote organizational effectiveness and personal growth: General electric and Goldman Sachs. Acad. Management Executive 18(4):134–138.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (1999) Goal commitment and the goal-setting process: Conceptual clarification and empirical synthesis. J. Appl. Psych. 84(6):885–896.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2001) The assessment of goal commitment: A measurement model meta-analysis. Organ. Behav. Human Decision Processes 85(1):32–55.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2001) The relationship of team goals, incentives, and efficacy to strategic risk, tactical implementation, and performance. Acad. Management J. 44(2):326–338.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (1992) Aspiration level adaptation: An empirical exploration. Management Sci. 38(5):623–644.Link, Google Scholar
- (2008) Managerial reasoning about aspirations and expectations. J. Econom. Behav. Organ. 66(1):60–73.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (1992) The role of managerial learning and interpretation in strategic persistence and reorientation: An empirical exploration. Strategic Management J. 13(8):585–608.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2009) Goal-induced risk taking in negotiation and decision making. Soc. Cognition 27(3):342–364.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (1999) The effects of proximal and distal goals on performance on a moderately complex task. J. Organ. Behav. 20(4):421–429.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (1991) Random walks and organizational mortality. Admin. Sci. Quart. 36(3):397–420.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (1997) Adaptation on rugged landscapes. Management Sci. 43(7):934–950.Link, Google Scholar
- (1981) A model of adaptive organizational search. J. Econom. Behav. Organ. 2(4):307–333.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (1990) A Theory of Goal Setting and Task Performance (Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ).Google Scholar
- (2013) New Developments in Goal Setting and Task Performance (Routledge Academic, London).Crossref, Google Scholar
- (1986) Taking Risks (Free Press, New York).Google Scholar
- (1987) Managerial perspectives on risk and risk taking. Management Sci. 33(11):1404–1418.Link, Google Scholar
- (1991) Exploration and exploitation in organizational learning. Organ. Sci. 2(1):71–87.Link, Google Scholar
- (1992) Variable risk preferences and the focus of attention. Psych. Rev. 99(1):172–183.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (1998) The influence of local search and performance heuristics on new design introduction in a new product market. Res. Policy 26(7):753–771.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2009) Group and individual risk preferences: A lottery-choice experiment with self-employed and salaried workers. J. Econom. Behav. Organ. 70(3):470–484.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2002) Aspiration-level adaptation in an American financial services organization: A field study. Management Sci. 48(10):1285–1300.Link, Google Scholar
- (1998) Managerial prescriptions under the resource-based view of strategy: The example of motivational techniques. Strategic Management J. 19(12):1169–1182.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2009) Goals gone wild: The systematic side effects of overprescribing goal setting. Acad. Management Perspect. 23(1):6–16.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (1982) In Search of Excellence: Lessons from America’s Best-Run Corporations (Harper and Row, New York).Google Scholar
- (2009) Effects of feedback delay on learning. System Dynam. Rev. 25(4):309–338.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2002) Capability traps and self-confirming attribution errors in the dynamics of process improvement. Admin. Sci. Quart. 46(2):265–295.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2000) Imitation of complex strategies. Management Sci. 46(6):824–844.Link, Google Scholar
- (2012) Stretch goals require new way of doing business. Federal News Radio. Accessed October 30, 2014, http://www.federalnewsradio.com/538/2693221/Stretch-goals-require-new-way-of-doing-business.Google Scholar
- (2001) Beyond local search: Boundary-spanning, exploration, and impact in the optical disk industry. Strategic Management J. 22(4):287–306.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (1994) The sharpe ratio. J. Portfolio Management 21(1):49–58.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2011) Organizational aspirations, reference points, and goals: building on the past and aiming for the future. J. Management 38(1):415–455.Google Scholar
- (2003) Organizational performance referents: An empirical examination of their content and influences. Organ. Behav. Human Decision Processes 90(2):209–224.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2006) When exploration backfires: Unintended consequences of multilevel organizational search. Acad. Management J. 49(4):779–795.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (1955) A behavioral model of rational choice. Quart. J. Econom. 69(1):99–118.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (1964) On the concept of organizational goal. Admin. Sci. Quart. 9(1):1–22.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (1995) Determinants of risky decision-making behavior: A test of the mediating role of risk perceptions and propensity. Acad. Management J. 38(6):1573–1592.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2011) the paradox of stretch goals: Organizations in pursuit of the seemingly impossible. Acad. Management Rev. 36(3):544–566.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (1999) Jack Welch and the GE Way: Management Insights and Leadership Secrets of the Legendary CEO (McGraw-Hill Companies, New York).Google Scholar
- (1989) Modeling managerial behavior: Misperceptions of feedback in a dynamic decision making experiment. Management Sci. 35(3):321–339.Link, Google Scholar
- (1994) Learning in and about complex systems. System Dynam. Rev. 10(2–3):291–330.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2000) Business Dynamics: Systems Thinking and Modeling for a Complex World (Irwin/McGraw-Hill, New York).Google Scholar
- (1996) Local search and the evolution of technological capabilities. Strategic Management J. 17(S1):21–38.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (1997) Stretch targets: What makes them effective? Acad. Management Executive 11(3):48–60.Google Scholar
- (2002) A domain-specific risk-attitude scale: measuring risk perceptions and risk behaviors. J. Behav. Decision Making 15(4):263–290.Crossref, Google Scholar
- (2007) The value of moderate obsession: Insights from a new model of organizational search. Organ. Sci. 18(3):403–419.Link, Google Scholar
- (1987) Task complexity as a moderator of goal effects: A meta-analysis. J. Appl. Psych. 72(3):416–425.Crossref, Google Scholar

